Respiratory System

Organs of the Respiratory System:

Upper respiratory tract:

 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea

Lower respiratory tract

 Bronchi
 Lungs—alveoli (terminal air sacs)
 Diaphragm – when the diaphragm is resting, it is dome-shaped. When we inhale, it flattens!

Functions of the Respiratory System:

1. Gas exchanges between the blood environment – occurs in the external and internal alveoli of the lungs. When we
inhale, the alveoli will be filled with oxygen, outside the alveoli is a room full of capillaries.
2. Passageway to the lungs purify, humidity, and warm the incoming air.
 Organs of the Respiratory System:
1. The Nose
- Only externally visible part of the respiratory system.
- Air enters the nose through the external nostrils (nares)
- The interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum.

ANATOMY OF THE NASALC AVITY:

Olfactory receptors
- these are in the mucosa on the superior surface

- the rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa that moisten air, trap incoming foreign particles, rich networks of
thin-walled veins.

Respiratory mucosa
- mucosa's glands – sticky mucous, lysosomes
ciliated cells – move contaminated mucous to the throat.
extremely cold-move outward.
- lateral walls have projections called conchae
Increase surface area
Increase air turbulence within the nasal cavity.
- The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by the palate.
Anterior hard palate (bone)
Posterior soft palate (muscle)
 PARANASAL SINUSES

- Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity are called sinuses.
- Sinuses are in the following bones:
frontal bones
sphenoid bone
ethmoid bone
maxillary bone
- Functions of the sinuses
lighten the skull
act as resonance chambers for speech
produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity

2. Pharynx (throat)
- Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
- 2 regions of the pharynx
a. Nasopharynx – superior region behind nasal cavity
b. Oropharynx – middle region behind nasal cavity
c. Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached to larynx.
- The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common passageways for air and food.

Structures of the Pharynx:

Pharyngotympanic

- tubes open into the nasopharynx

- The mucosae of these two regions are continuous, so ear infection such as itits media may follow a sore throat or other
types of pharyngeal infections.

Tonsil

- Clusters of lymphatic tissue – part of our immune system

- Play a role in protecting the body form infection
- Tonsils of the pharynx:
a. Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) - is in the nasopharynx
b. Palatine tonsils - are in the oropharynx (are the ones visible when you open mouth and say AAAAAAAAA)
 c. Lingual tonsil – are found at the base of the tongue.

3. Larynx (Voice Box)

- Routes air and food into proper channels
- Plays a role in speech
- Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage (epiglottis)\

Structures of the Larynx

a. Thyroid Cartilage:
- largest of the hyaline cartilages
- produces anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
- shield-shape cartilage
b. Epiglottis (Guardian of Airways)
- Protects the superior opening of the larynx
- Routes food to the esophagus and air toward the trachea
- When swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid over the opening of the larynx.
c. Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
- Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
d. Glottis
- Opening between vocal cords. Creates vibration when speaking.

4. Trachea (windpipe)
- Four-inch-long tube that connects larynx with bronchi.
- Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage.

Purpose of the Rings:

a. Open parts of the ring about the esophagus and allow it to expand anteriorly when swallowing a large piece of food
b. Solid portion support the trachea walls keep it patent despite pressure during breathing.
- It is lined with ciliated mucosa
beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air.
expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs.
- Obstruction is life threatening – Heimlich Maneuver or Tracheostomy
- Smoking prevents ciliary activity and destroys the cilia.
- Without the Celia, coughing is the only means of preventing mucus from accumulating in the lungs.
 5. Main (primary) bronchi
- Formed by division of the trachea
- Enters the lung at the helium (medial depression)
- Right bronchus is wider, shorter and straighter than left
- Bronchi subdivided into smaller and smaller branches.

6. Lungs
- Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
- Heart occupies central portion called mediastinum
- Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
- Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
Left lung – two lobes
Right lung- three lobes
- Diaphragm is pushing the lungs upward to aid on expiration and inhalation.

Coverings of the Lungs

- Serosa covers the outer =surface of the lungs
- Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
- Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
- Pleural fluid fills the areas between layers if pleural to allow gliding
- These two pleural layers resists being pulled apart

7. Bronchial (Respiratory) tree divisions

- All but the smallest of these passageways have reinforcing cartilage in their walls
primary bronchi
Secondary bronchi
tertiary bronchi
bronchioles
terminal bronchioles

Respiratory Zone

- Structures
o Respiratory bronchioles
o Alveolars ducts
o Alveolar sacs
o Alveoli (air sacs)
- Site of gas exchange = alveoli only

Respiratory membrane (Air-blood barrier)

- Thin-squamous epithelial layer lines alveolar walls

- Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs
- Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli
- On one side of the membrane is air and on the other side is blood flowing past.

Gas exchange

- Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion

oxygen enters the blood
carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
- Alveolar macrophages (dust cells) add protection by picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris.
- Surfactant (a lipid molecule) coats gas exposed alveolar surfaces.
4 Events of Respiration

1. Pulmonary ventilation
- Moving air in and out of the lungs (commonly called breathing)
2. External respiration
- Gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli
oxygen is loaded into the blood
carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood.
3. Respiratory gas transport
- Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
4. Internal respiration
- Gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillary.

Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation):

1. Completely mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic activity
2. Volume changes lead to pressure changes which lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure.
3. Two phases
inspiration – inhalation. The flow of air into the lungs
expiration – exhalation. Air leaving the lungs

Inspiration

- Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract.

- The size of the thoracic cavity increases
- External air is pulled into the lungs due to :
increase in intrapulmonary volume
decrease in gas pressure

Expiration

- Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung elasticity

- As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs due to:
decrease in intrapulmonary volume
increase in gas pressure
- Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting internal intercostal muscles to depress rib cage

Pressure Difference in the Thoracic Cavity

- Normal pressure within the pleural space is always negative (intrapleural pressure)
- Differences in lungs and pleural space pressure keep lungs from collapsing.

Non-respiratory air (gas) movements

- Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary actions.

- Examples:
Cough and sneeze – clear lungs of debris
Crying – emotionally induced mechanism
Laughing – like crying
Hiccup –sudden inspiraitons
Yawn – very deep inspiration

Respiratory volumes and Capacities

- Normal breathing moves about 500 mL of air with each breath.

this respiratory volume is tidal volume (TV)
 - Many factors that affect respiratory capacity
a person’s size,
Sex
Age
Physical condition
- Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume.
usually around 3100 mL
- The expiratory reserve volume
amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
approximately 1200 mL.
- Residual volume
air remaining I lung after expiration
about 1200 mL
- Vital Capacity
the total amount of exchangeable air
vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
- Dead space volume
air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches alveoli
about 1500 mL
- Functional volume
air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
usually about 350 mL
- Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer

RESPIRATORY SOUNDS

- Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope

- Two recognizable sounds can be heard with a stethoscope
bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing through large passageways such as the trachea and bronchi
vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of air filling alveoli

External Respiration

- Oxygen loaded into the blood

the alveoli always have more oxygen than the blood
oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen.
- Carbon dioxide unloaded out of the blood.
blood returning from tissues has higher concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli
pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide to be exhaled.
- Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-poor.

Gas transport in the blood

- Oxygen transport in the blood

most oxygen travels attached to hemoglobin and forms oxyhemoglobin
a small, dissolved amount is carried in the plasma.
- Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
a small amount is carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding sites than those of oxygen.
- For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood into the alveoli, it must be released from its bicarbonate form.:
bicarbonate ions enter RBC
combine with hydrogen ions
form carbonic acid
carbonic acid splits to form water + CO2
carboin dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli