RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Organs of the Respiratory System Nasal Cavity

●​ Nose - the interior of the nose
●​ Pharynx
●​ Larynx Nasal Septum
●​ Trachea - divides the nasal cavity
●​ Bronchi
●​ Lungs—alveoli (terminal sacs) ●​ Olfactory receptors are located in the
mucosa on the superior surface
●​ The rest of the cavity is lined with
respiratory mucosa, which:
○​ Moistens air
○​ Traps incoming foreign particles
○​ Enzymes in the mucus destroy
bacteria chemically

Conchae
- Projections from the lateral walls
- Increase surface area
- Increase air turbulence within the nasal
cavity
FUNCTIONAL OF THE RESPIRATORY - Increased trapping of inhale particles
SYSTEM
✓ Gas exchange between the blood and Palate
external environment occur only in the - separates the nasal cavity from the
alveoli of the lungs oral cavity
✓ Upper respiratory tract includes ➢​ Hard palate
passageways from the nose to larynx - Is anterior and supported by bone
✓ Lower respiratory tract includes ➢​ Soft Palate
passageways from trachea to alveoli - Posterior and unsupported
✓ Passageways to the lungs purify,
humidify, and warm the incoming air. Paranasal Sinuses
- Cavities within the frontal, sphenoid,
Nose ethmoid, and maxillary bones
- The only externally visible part of the surrounding the nasal cavity
respiratory system
Sinuses:
Nostrils (Nares) ●​ Lighten the skull
- are the route through which air enters ●​ Act as resonance chambers for speech
the nose ●​ Produce mucus
Pharynx Oropharynx and Laryngopharunx serve
- Commonly called the throat as common passageway for air and food
- Muscular passageway from the nasal
cavity to larynx Epiglottis
- Continuous with the posterior nasal - routes food into the posterior tube, the
aperture esophagus.

Three regions of the pharynx: Pharyngotympanic tubes

1. Nasopharynx - open into the nasopharynx
- Superiori region behind nasal cavity - Drain the middle ear.
2. Oropharynx
- Middle region behind mouth Tonsils
3. Laryngopharynx - are clusters of lymphatic tissue
- Inferior region attached to larynx - that plays a role in protecting the body
from infection.
- There are three type of tonsils;

(a) Pharyngeal tonsil (Adenoid)

- A single tonsil
- Located in the nasopharynx

(b)Palatine tonsils
- Located in the oropharynx at the end of
the soft palate

(c)Lingual tonsils
- Are found at the base of the tongue
Larynx
- Commonly called the voice box
- Located inferior to the pharynx
- Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages
- Thyroid cartilage (Adams’ apple) which
is the largest one.

Functions:
✓ Routes air and food into proper
channels
✓ Plays a role in speech
THE MAIN BRONCHI
-
- Formed by the division of the trachea
Epiglottis
- Each bronchus enters the lung at the
- Spoon- shaped flap of elastic cartilage
hilum (medial depression)
- Protects the superior opening of the
- Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and
larynx
straighter than left
- Routes food to the posteriorly situated
- Bronchi subdivide into smaller and
esophagus and routes air toward the
smaller branches.
trachea
- During swallowing, the epiglottis rises
Lungs
and forms a lid over the opening of the
- Occupy the entire thoracic cavity
larynx.
except for the central mediastinum
- Includes the vocal cords and the opening
- Apex of each lung is near the clavicle
between the vocal cords
(superior portion)
- Base rests on the diaphragm
Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
- Each lung is divided into two lobes by
- Vibrate with expelled air
fissure;
- Allow us to speak
(a)Left lung - two lobe
(b)Right lung - three lobes
Trachea
- Commonly called the windpipe
Serosa covers the outer surface of the
- 4-inch-long tube that connects to the
lungs
larynx
- Walls are reinforced with C-shaped
Pulmonary (visceral) pleura
rings of hyaline cartilage, which keep the
- covers surface
trachea patent (open)
- Lined with ciliated mucosa
Parietal pleura
- Cilia beat continuously in the opposite
- The line in the wall of thoracic cavity
direction of incoming air
- Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
Pleural fluids
debris away from the lungs
- fills the area between layers
- allows the lung to glide over the thorax
- decrease friction during breathing
- Pleural space (between the layers) is
more of a potential space
Bronchial Tree Alveoli
- Main bronchi subdivide into smaller - Simple squamous epithelial cells
and smaller branches largely compass the walls
- Alveolar pores connect neighboring air
Bronchial (respiratory) tree sacs
- the network of branching - Pulmonary capillaries cover the external
- all the smallest passageways have surfaces of the alveoli
reinforcing cartilage in the walls
- conduits to and from the respiratory
zone
- bronchioles (smallest conducting
passageways)

RESPIRATORY ZONE STRUCTURE AND

THE RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
- Terminal bronchioles lead into ●​ Gas crosses the respiratory membrane
respiratory zone structures and terminate by diffusion
in alveoli ○​ Oxygen enter the blood
- conducting zone structures include all ○​ Carbon dioxide enter the alveoli
other passageways
Alveolar Macrophages (“dust cells”)
Respiratory zone includes the; - Add protection by picking up bacteria,
(a) Respiratory bronchioles carbon particles and other debris
(b) Alveolar Ducts
(c) Alveolar Sacs Surfactant (a lipid molecule)
(d) Alveolar (air scas) - coast gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
- secreted by cuboidal surfactant-secreting
cells

THE RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

Functions of respiratory system
✓ Supply the body with oxygen
✓ Dispose of carbon dioxide
✓ Respiration includes four distinct
events

(a)Pulmonary Ventilation
- moving air into and out of the lungs
(commonly called breathing)
- mechanical process that depends on
volume changes in the thoracic cavity
- Volume changes lead to pressure - forced expiration can occur mostly by
changes, which lead to the flow of gases to contraction of internal intercostal muscle
equalize pressure to depress the rib cage.

Two phase of pulmonary ventilation Intrapleural Pressure

1. Inspiration = inhalation - the pressure within the pleural space is
- flow of air into lungs always negative
- diaphragm and external intercostal - major factor preventing lung collapse
muscles contract - if intrapleural pressure equals
- intrapulmonary volume increases atmospheric pressure, the lung recoils and
- gas pressure decreases collapses.
-air flows on to the lungs until
intrapulmonary pressure equals
atmospheric pressure

(b) External Respiration

- gas exchange between pulmonary blood
and alveoli
✓ Oxygen is loaded into the blood
✓ Carbon dioxide is unloaded form the
blood

(c) Respiration Gas Transport

- transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide via the bloodstream

(d) Internal Respiration

- gas exchange between blood and tissue
2. Expiration = exhalation cells in systemic capillaries
- air leaving or out of the lungs
- largely a passive process that depends on RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND
natural lung elasticity CAPACITIES
- intrapulmonary volume decreases Factors affecting respiratory capacity
- gas pressure increases ●​ Size
- gases passively flow out to equalize the ●​ Sex
pressure ●​ Age
●​ Physical condition
Tidal volume (TV)
- normal quiet breathing
- 500ml of air is moved in/out of lungs
with each breath

Inspiratory Reserve Volume(IRV)

- amount of air that can be taken in
forcibly over the tidal volume
- usually around 3,100 ml
NONRESPIRATORY AIR MOVEMENTS
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) - caused be caused by reflexes or
- amount of air that can be forcibly voluntary actions
exhaled after a tidal expiration
- approximately 1,200 ml Example:
●​ Cough and Sneeze - clears lungs of
Residual Volume debris
- air remaining in lung after expiration ●​ Crying - emotionally induced
- cannot be voluntarily exhale mechanism
- allows gas exchange to go on ●​ Laughing - similar to crying
continuously, even between breaths, and ●​ Hiccup - sudden inspiration
helps keep alveoli open (inflated) ●​ Yawn - very deep inspiration
- about 1,200 ml
RESPIRATORY SOUNDS
Vital capacity - sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
- the total amount of exchangeable air - two recognizable sounds can be heard
- vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV with a stethoscope
- 4,800 ml in men; 3,100 ml in women
1. Bronchial sounds
Dead space volume - produced by air rushing through large
- air that remains in conducting zone and passageways such as the trachea and
never reaches alveoli bronchi
- about 150 ml
2. Vesicular breathing sounds
Functional Volume - soft sounds of air filling alveoli
- air that actually reaches the
respiratory zone
- usually about 350 ml
- respiratory capacities are measured with
a spirometer
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION, GAS External Respiration
TRANSPORT, AND INTERNAL - is an exchange of gases occurring
RESPIRATION between the alveoli and pulmonary
●​ Gas exchanges occur as a result of blood (pulmonary gas exchange)
diffusion
●​ Movement of the gas is toward the area ➢​ Oxygen is loaded into the blood
of lower concentration ○​ Oxygen diffuses from the
oxygen-rich air of the alveoli to the
oxygen-poor blood of the pulmonary
capillaries
➢​ Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of the
blood
○​ Carbon dioxide diffuses from the
blood of the pulmonary capillaries
to the alveoli.
Internal respiration ○​ A small amount if carried inside red
- is an exchange of gases occurring blood cells on hemoglobin, but at
between the blood and tissues cells different binding sites from those of
(systemic capillary gas exchange) oxygen
- an opposite reaction from what occurs in
the lungs For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood
into the alveoli, it must be release from its
Two type of diffuses: bicarbonate form;
1. Loading
- Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the ➔​ Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
tissues cells to blood ➔​ Combine with hydrogen ions
➔​ Form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
2. Unloading ➔​ Carbonic acid splits to form water +CO2
- Oxygen diffuses from the blood into ➔​ Carbon dioxide diffuse from blood into
tissues alveoli

CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
Neural regulation
- setting the basic rhythm
- Activity of respiratory muscles is
transmitted to and from the brain by
phrenic and intercostal nerves
- Neural centers that control rate and
depth are located in the medulla and pons

Medulla
- sets basic rhythm of breathing and
contains a pacemaker called the ventral
respiratory group (VRG)

GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD Pons

➢​ Oxygen transport in the blood - smooches out respiratory rate
○​ Most oxygen travels attached to
hemoglobin and forms Eupnea
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) - Normal respiratory rate
○​ A small dissolved amount is carried - 12 to 20 respirations per minute (adult)
in the plasma
Hyperpnea
➢​ Carbon dioxide transport in the blood - Increase respiratory rate, often due to
○​ Most carbon dioxide is transported extra oxygen needs
in the plasma as bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-)
❖​ Non - neural
- influencing respiratory rate and depth ➢​ Chemical factors: oxygen levels
- volition (conscious control) - changes in oxygen concentration in
- emotional factors such as fear, anger, and the blood are detected by chemoreceptors
excitement in the aorta and common carotid arteries.
- information is send to the medulla
Physical factors: - oxygen is the stimulus for those whose
➔​ Increased body temperature systems have become accustomed to high
➔​ Exercise levels of carbon dioxide as a result of
➔​ Talking disease.
➔​ Coughing
➢​ Hyperventilation
➢​ Chemical factors: CO2 levels - low levels of CO2 in the blood
- the body’s needs to rid itself of CO2 is (alkalosis) result in faster, deeper
the most important stimulus for breathing
breathing - exhale more CO2 to elevate blood pH
- increased levels of carbon dioxide - may result in apnea and dizziness and
(and thus, a decreased or acidic pH) in the lead to alkalosis
blood increase the rate and depth of
breathing ➢​ Hypoventilation
- changes in carbon dioxide act directly on - results when blood becomes alkaline
the medulla oblongata (alkalosis)
- extremely slow or shallow breathing
- allows CO2 to accumulate in the blood

RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
❖​ Chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD)
- exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
- shared features of these diseases

1. Patients almost always have a history of

smoking
2. Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes
progressively worse
3. Coughing and frequents pulmonary
infections are common
4. Most COPD patients are hypoxic, retain
carbon dioxide and have respiratory
acidosis, and ultimately develop
❖​ Lung Cancer
respiratory failure.
- leading cause of cancer death for men
and women
❖​ Chronic bronchitis
- nearly 90 percent of cases result from
- mucosa of the lower respiratory
smoking
passages becomes severely inflamed
- aggressive cancer that metastasizes
- excessive mucus production impairs
rapidly
ventilation and gas exchange
- three common types
- patients become cyanotic and are
1. Adenocarcinoma
sometimes called “blue bloaters” as a
2. Squamous cell carcinoma
result of chronic hypoxia and carbon
3. Small cell carcinoma
dioxide retention.

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE

❖​ Emphysema
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- alveoli walls are destroyed; remaining
➢​ Lungs do not fully inflate until 2 weeks
alveoli enlarge
after birth
- chronic inflammation promotes lung
○​ Ths change from non functional to
fibrosis, and lungs lose elasticity
functional respiration depends on
- patients use a large amount of energy to
surfactant
exhale; some air remain in the lungs
○​ Surfactant lower surface tension so
- suffers are often called “pink puffers”
the alveoli do not collapse
because oxygen exchange is efficient
○​ Surfactant is formed late in
- overinflation of the lungs leads to a
pregnancy, around 28 to 30 weeks
permanently expanded barrel chest
- cyanosis appears late in the disease.
Respiratory rate changes throughout life
Newborns: 40 to 80 respiration per
minute
Infants: 30 respirations per minute
Age 5: 25 respiration per minute
Adults: 12 to 20 respiration per minute
Rate often increase again in old age

Asthma
- Chronically inflamed, hypersensitive
bronchial passages
- response to irritant with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing

Youth and middle age

- Most respiratory system problems are a
result of external factors, such as
infections and substances that physically
block respiratory passageways.

Aging effects
- Elasticity of lungs decreases
- Vital capacity decrease
- Blood oxygen levels decrease
- Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decrease
- Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit
apnea
- More risks of respiratory tract infection