Experiment No.

:- 1

Aim:
Performance test on air-conditioning test rig
Objective:
1. To evaluate the cooling capacity in Watts & in Tons of the system.
2. To evaluate actual and theoretical C.O.P. of the Cycle.
3. To plot the actual cycle on P-H chart.
4. To study various components of the cycle.
1. Introduction:
The Air Conditioning Trainer works on Vapor compression Refrigeration cycle using R
22 as a refrigerant. The Trainer is having a hermetically sealed compressor, which sucks
cold refrigerant vapor from the evaporator. The vapor is compressed to higher pressure
and consequently to higher temperature in the compressor. The high pressure and high
temperature refrigerant then enters the condenser, where its latent heat is removed by
rejecting the heat to the air passing over the forced convection condenser. The liquefied
refrigerant passes through drier (where any residual moisture is absorbed) and through
rotameter (where flow is measured) and enters the expansion device. In the expansion
device, the refrigerant is throttled to a lower pressure and as a result, the temperature of
the refrigerant also reduced. This low temperature wet vapour flows through the
evaporator, which is a forced convection air-cooled evaporator. Here, the refrigerant
picks up heat from air passing over it and gains heat; it evaporates and enters the
compressor. In addition to basic system components, many controls such as overload
protector, HP/LP cut-out are provided to safeguard the system against any
malfunctioning. To accomplish psychometric processes, heating elements and
humidification arrangement is provided. To vary the airflow, air dampers are provided.
For measurement of pressures dial type pressure gauges are fitted and to record
temperatures digital temperature scanner is incorporated.

Page 1
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
2. Specifications of test rig:
Compressor : Hermetically sealed.
Condenser : Forced Convection Air cooled
Drier / filter : Provided
Refrigerant flow measurement : Glass Tube Rotameter
Expansion Device : Capillary tube.
Evaporator : Forced convection air cooled
Energy meter : Provide
Condenser Fan : Axial flow type
Evaporator Fan : Axial flow type
Heater : 1000 Watt Finned type
Temperature Indicator : 6 Channel Facility with digital display
3. Experimental Procedure:
 Connect the supply cable to regulated / stabilized power supply.
 Switch ON the main switch.
 Put ON the AHU fan.
 Record the DBT & WBT at the inlet and at the outlet of the duct. (Ensure that the
well of WBT is filled with water.) Use psychrometer.
 Switch ON the compressor.
 Allow the system to reach steady state.
 Record the air temperatures at inlet and outlet (DBT & WBT) Use digital
indicator.
 Record the Energy-meter reading.
 Record suction and discharge pressures.
 Record Rotameter reading, refrigerant temperatures at various locations viz:
before &after compression and before & after expansion.
 Measure velocity head with the help of manometer at inlet of the ducting.
 Take the reading 15 minutes after starting cooling.

Page 2
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
I. Tonnage capacity of the AC plant

Inlet conditions :
Outlet conditions :
Inlet air enthalpy h 1 : (ref. Phyc. Chart.)
Outlet air enthalpy h 2 :
Enthalpy difference (h 1-h2) kj/kg :
Velocity of air (V) : m /s
Air outlet sectional area (A) : sq. Mtr

Volume flow rate of air, (Q f) : VxA cubic mtrs per sec

Mass flow rate of air (m) : Qf x density of air

Actual refrigeration effect (RE) : m x (h 1-h2) Kw

Tonnage capacity : RE/3.5 TR

Compressor work (W) (Kw) : 10x3600

3200 x t
(Where t=time for 10 pulses in sec.)

Page 3
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
II. Actual COP of the system

Actual COP (COP act) : RE / W

III. Theoretical COP of the system

Average refrigerant temperatures and pressure at salient points:

 Suction gas temperature =
 Discharge gas temperature=
 Temperature after condensation=
 Temperature after expansion=
 Average suction pressure in bar
 Average discharge pressure in bar
 Absolute suction pressure =
suction gauge pressure+ barometric pressure =
 Absolute discharge pressure=
discharge gauge pressure+ barometric pressure=
Accordingly,
Enthalpies of refrigerant at salient points are
H1=enthalpy of refrigerant at inlet of compressor=
H2=enthalpy of refrigerant at outlet of compressor=
H3=enthalpy of refrigerant after condensation=
H4=enthalpy of refrigerant after expansion = h 3=

Theroritical refrigeration effect (Q th) = H 1-H4

Theroritical compressor work (W th)= H2-H1

Page 4
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
Coefficient of performance (COP th)=(Q th)/(Wth)

Page 5
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
4. Observation Table:

R-22

REFRIGERANT FLOW
INLET AIR OUTLET

SUCTION PRESSURE
REFRIGERANT

SECTIONAL AREA
ENERGY METER
TEMP. AIR TEMP.

PRESSURE (HP)

OF THE DUCT
TEMPERATURES

TIME FOR 10
DISCHARGE
0 0
C C 0
C

PULSES.
PSIG

PSIG
TIME

( LP)

LPH
SL

CONDENSATION

EVAPORATION
COMPRESSION
HRS

EXPANSION
AFTER

AFTER

AFTER

AFTER

Velocity
DBT WBT DBT WBT

0.051
sq m

Page 6
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
5. Result table
Sr. Capacity of test rig Actual COP Theoretical COP
No.

6. Conclusion

Page 7
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
 Experiment No: – 2

Objective: -
To study Air refrigeration system

Introduction: -
In an air refrigeration cycle, the air is used as a refrigerant. In olden days, air was
widely used in commercial applications because of its availabity at free of cost. Since air
does not change its phase i.e. remains gaseous throughout the cycle, therefore the heat
carrying capacity per kg of air is very small as compared to vapour absorbing systems.
The air cycle refrigeration systems, as originally designed and installed, are now
practically obsolete because of their low coefficient of performance and high power
requirements. However, this system continues to be favored for air refrigeration because
of the low weight and volume of the equipment. The basic elements of an air cycle
refrigeration systems are the compressor, the cooler or heat exchanger the expander and
the refrigerator. The air refrigeration can be divided into a open cycle and closed cycle.

Open air refrigeration cycle: -

In an open-air refrigeration cycle, the air is directly led to the space to be cooled,
allowed to circulate through the cooler and then returned to the compressor to start
another cycle. Since the air is supplied to the refrigerator at atmospheric pressure,
therefore, volume of air handled by the compressor and expander is large. Thus the size
of compressor and expander should be large. Another disadvantage of the open cycle
system is that the moisture is regularly carried away by the air circulated through the
cooled space. This leads to the formation of frost at the end of expansion process and
clog the line. Thus in an open cycle system, a drier should be used.

Page 8
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
Closed or dense air refrigeration cycle: -
In a closed or dense air refrigeration cycle, the air is passed through the pipes and
component pats of the system at all times. The air, in this system, is used for absorbing
heat from the other fluid and this cooled brine is circulated into the space to be cooled.
The air in the closed system does not come in contact directly with the space to be
cooled.
The closed air refrigeration cycle has the following thermodynamic advantages:
1) Since it can work at a suction pressure higher than that of atmospheric pressure,
therefore the volume of air handled by the compressor and expander are smaller as
compared to an open-air refrigeration cycle system.
2) The operating pressure ratio can be reduced which results in higher coefficient of
performance.

Air refrigerator working on reversed Carnot cycle: -

A reversed Carnot cycle, using air as working medium is shown on p-v and T- s
diagrams. At point 1, let p1 , v1 , T1 be this pressure, volume and temperature of air
respectively.
1) Isentropic compression process: - The air is compressed as shown by the curve 1-2 on
p-v and T-s diagrams. During this process of air increases from P 1 to P2 , specific
volume decreases from v1 to v2 and temperature from T1 to T2 . We know that during
isentropic compression, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
2) Isothermal compression process: - The air now compressed isothermally as shown by
the curve 2-3 on p-v and T-s diagrams. During this process, the pressure of air
increases from p2 to p3 and specific volume decreases from v2 to v3 . We know that the
heat rejected by the air during isothermal compression per kg of air.
Q2 – 3 = Area 2 – 3 – 3’ – 2’
= T3 ( s2 – s3 ) = T2 ( s2 – s3 )
3) Isentropic expansion process: - The air is now expanded isentropically as shown by
the curve 3-4 on p-v and T-s diagrams. The pressure of air decreases from p 3 to p4 ,

Page 9
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
 specific volume increases from v3 to v4 and the temperature decreases from T 3 to T4 .
We know that during isentropic expansion no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
4) Isothermal expansion process: - The air is noe expanded isothermally as shown by the
curve 4-1 on p-v and T- s diagrams. The pressure of air decreases from p 4 to p1, and
specific volume v4 to v 3. We know that the heat absorbed by the air during isothermal
expansion per kg of air.
Q 4 – 1 = Area 4 –1 –2’ – 3’
= T4 ( s1 – s4 ) = T4 ( s2 – s3 ) = T1 ( s2 – s3 )

We know that work done during the cycle per kg of air

= Heat rejected - Heat absorbed = q2 –3 – q 4 – 1
= T2 ( s2 – s3 ) –T1 ( s2 – s3 ) =( T2 – T1) ( s2 – s3 )
Coefficient of performance of the refrigeration system working on reversed Carnot
cycle,
Heat absorbed q4 - 1
(C.O.P) R = __________________ = __________________
Work done q2 –3 – q4 – 1

T1 ( s2 – s3 ) T1
= ________________________ = ________________
( T2 – T1) ( s2 – s3 ) T2 – T1

Though the reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient between the fixed
temperature limits, yet no refrigerator has been made using this cycle. This is due to
reason that the isentropic processes of the cycle require high speed while the isothermal
process requires an extremely low speed. This variation in speed of air is not practicable.

Air refrigerator working on a bell Coleman cycle (or reversed Brayton

or Joule cycle)
A bell Coleman air refrigeration machine was developed by bell Coleman and
light foot by reversing the joule’s air cycle. It was one of the earliest types of refrigerators

Page 10
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
used in ships carrying frozen meat. A schematic diagram of such a machine, which
consist of a compressor, a cooler, an expander and a refrigerator.
The bell Coleman cycle is a modification of reversed Carnot cycle. The cycle is shown on
p-v and t-s diagrams. At point 1, let p1 , v1 and T1 be the pressure, volume and
temperature of air respectively. The four processes of the cycle are as follows;
1) Isentropic compression process: - The cold air from the refrigerator is drawn into the
compressor cylinder where it is compressed isentropically in the compressor as
shown by the curve 1-2 on p-v and t-s diagrams. During the compression stroke, both
the pressure and temperature increases and the specific volume of air at delivery from
compressor reduces from v1 to v2.We know that during isentropic compression
process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
2) Constant pressure cooling process: - The warm air from the compressor is now
passed into the cooler where it is cooled at constant pressure p 3 , reducing the
temperature from T2 to T3 as shown by the curve 2-3 on p-v and T-s diagrams. The
specific volume also reduces from v2 to v3. We know that heat rejected by the air
during constant pressure per kg. Of air.
Q2-3 = CP ( T2 – T3)
3) Isentropic expansion process:- The air from the cooler is now drawn into the
expander cylinder where it is expanded isentropically from pressure p 3 to the
refrigerator pressure p4 which is equal to the atmospheric pressure. The temperature
of air during expansion falls from T 3 to T4 . The expansion process is shown by the
curve 3-4 on the p-v and T-s diagrams. The specific volume of air entry to the
refrigerator increases from v3 to v4. We know that during isentropic expansion of air,
no heat is absorbed or rejected by the air.
4) Constant pressure expansion process: -The cold air from the expander is now passed
to the refrigerator where it is expanded at constant pressure p 4. The temperature of
air increases from T4 to T1. This process is shown by the curve 4-1 on the p-v and T-s
diagrams. Due to heat from the specific volume of the air changes from v4 to v1.

Page 11
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
Methods of air refrigeration systems: -
The various methods of air refrigeration systems used for aircrafts these days are follows:
1) Simple air cooling system,
2) Simple air evaporative cooling system,
3) Boot strap air cooling system,
4) Boot strap air evaporative cooling system,
5) Reduced ambient air cooling system and,
6) Regenerative air-cooling system.

Simple air cooling system: -

A simple air-cooling system the main components of this system are the main compressor
driven by a gas turbine, a heat exchanger, a cooling turbine and a cooling air fan. The air
required for refrigeration system is bled off from the main compressor. This high pressure
and high temperature air is cooled initially in the heat exchanger where ram air is used for
cooling. It is further cooled in the cooling turbine by the process of expansion. The work
of this turbine is used to drive the cooling fan, which draws cooling air through the heat
exchanger. This system is good for ground surface cooling and for low fight speeds.
The various processes are discussed below:
1) Ramming process: - Let the pressure and temperature of ambient air is p 1 and T1
respectively. The ambient air is rammed isentropically from pressure p 1 and
temperature T1 to the pressure p2 and temperature T2 . This ideal ramming action is
shown by the vertical line 1-2 . In actual practice, because of internal friction due to
irreversibility, the temperature of the rammed air is more than T 2. Thus the actual
reaming process is shown by the curve 1-2’ which is adiabatic but not isentropic due
to friction. The pressure and temperature of the rammed air is now p 21 and T21
respectively. During the ideal or actual ramming process, the total energy or
enthalpy remains constant i.e, h2 = h21 and T2 = T21.
2) Compression process: - The isentropic compression of air in the main compressor is
represented by the line 2’-3. In actual practice, because of internal friction, due to

Page 12
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
 irreversibility, the actual compression is represented by the curve 2’-3’. The work
done during this compression process is given by
WC = ma cP ( T31 – T12)
Where ma = Mass of air bled from the main compressor for refrigeration purposes.
3) Cooling process: - The compressed air is cooled by the ram air in the heat exchanger.
This process by the curve 3’-4’. In actual practice, there is a pressure drop in the heat
exchanger, which is not shown in the figure. The temperature of air decreases from
T31 to T4. The heat rejected in the heat exchanger during the cooling process is given
by
QR = mA CP ( T31 – T4 )
4) Expansion process: - The cooled air is now expanded isentropically in the cooling
turbine as shown by the curve 4-5. In actual practice, because of internal friction due
to irreversibilities, the actual expansion in the cooling turbine is shown by the curve
4-5’. The work done by the cooling turbine this expansion process is given by
WR = mA CP ( T4 – T51)
The work of this turbine is used to drive the cooling air fan, which draws cooling air
from the heat Exchanger.
5) Refrigeration process: - The air from the cooling turbine is sent to the cabin and cock
pit where it gets heated by the heat of equipment and occupancy. This process is
shown byy the curve 5’-6. The refrigerating effect produced or heat absorbed is
given by
RE = ma CP ( T6 – T5’)
Where T6 = Inside temperature of cabin,
We know that C.O.P. of the air cycle
Refrigerating effect produced
= _______________________________
Work done
ma CP ( T6 – T5’) T6 – T5’
= __________________ = ____________
ma cP ( T31 – T2’) T3’ – T2’

Page 13
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
Simple air evaporative cooling system: -
A simple air evaporative cooling system is similar to the simple cooling system
except that the addition of an evaporator between the heat exchanger and cooling turbine.
The evaporator provides an additional cooling effect through evaporation of a refrigerant
such as water. At high attitudes, the evaporative cooling may be obtained by using
alcohol or ammonia. The water, alcohol and ammonia have different refrigerating effects
at different attitudes. At 20000meters height, water boils at 40 0C. Alcohol at 90 C and
ammonia –700 C. The various processes are same as discussed in simple air-cooling
system.

Bootstrap air cooling system: -

A bootstrap air-cooling system has two heat exchangers instead of one and a cooling
turbine drives a secondary compressor instead of cooling fan. The air bled from the main
compressor is first cooled by the ram air in the first heat exchanger. This cooled air, after
compression in the first heat exchanger. This cooled air, after compression in the
secondary compressor, is led to the second heat exchanger where it is again cooled by the
ram air before passing to the cooling turbine. This type of cooling system is mostly used
in transport type aircraft.
The T-s diagram for a bootstrap air cycle cooling system. The various processes
are as follows:
1) The process 1-2’ represents the ramming of ambient air from pressure p 1 and
temperature T1 to pressure p2 and temperature T2. The process 1-2’ represents the
actual ramming process because of internal friction due to irreversibilites.
2) The process 2’-3 represents the isentropic compression of air in the main compressor
and the process 2’-3 represents the actual compression of air because of internal
friction due to irreversibilities.
3) The process 3’-4 represents the cooling by ram air in the first heat exchanger. The
pressure drop in the heat exchanger is neglected.

Page 14
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
4) The process 4-5 represents compression of cooled air, from first heat exchanger, in
the secondary compressor. The process 4-5’ represents the actual compression
process because of internal friction due to irreversibilities.
5) The process 5’-6 represents the cooling by ram air in the second heat exchanger. The
pressure drop in heat exchanger in neglected.
6) The process 6-7 represents isentropic expansion of the cooling turbine upto the cabin
pressure. The process 6-7’ represents actual expansion of the cooled air in the cooling
turbine.
7) The process 7’-8 represents the heating of air upto the cabin temperature T8.

Reduced ambient air cooling system: -

The reduced air-cooling system includes two cooling turbines and one heat exchanger.
The reduced for the refrigeration system is bled off from the main compressor. This high
pressure and high temperature air is cooled initially I the heat exchanger. The air for
cooling is taken from the cooling turbine, which lower the high temperature of rammed
air. The cooled air from the heat exchanger is passed through the second cooling turbine
from where the air is supplied to the cabin. The work of the cooling turbine is used to
drive the cooling fan, which draws cooling from the heat exchanger. The reduced
ambient air-cooling system is used for very high-speed aircrafts.
The T-s diagram for the reduced ambient air cycle cooling system. The various processes
are as follows:
1) The process 1-2 represents isentropic ramming of air and the process 1-2’ represents
actual ramming for air because of internal friction due to irreversibilities.
2) The process 2’-3 represents isentropic compression in the main compressor and the
process 2’-3’ represents actual compression of air, because of internal friction due to
irreversibilities.
3) The process 3’-4 represents cooling of compressed air by ram air, which after passing
through the first cooling turbine is led to the heat exchanger. The pressure drop in the
heat exchanger is neglected.

Page 15
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
4) The process 4-5 represents isentropic expansion of air in the second cooling turbine
upto the cabin pressure. The actual expansion of air in the second cooling turbine is
represented by the curve 4-5’.
5) The process 5’-6 represents the heating of air upto the cabin temperature T6.

Regenrative air cooling system: -

The regenerative air-cooling system is a modification of a simple air-cooling system with
the addition of a regenerative heat exchanger. The high pressure and high temperature air
from the main compressor is first cooled by the ram air in the heat exchanger. This air is
further cooled in the regenerative heat exchanger with a portion of the air bled after
expansion in the cooling turbine. This type of cooling system is used for supersonic
aircrafts and rockets.
The T-s diagram for the regenerative air-cooling system. The various processes are as
below:
1) The process 1-2 represents isentropic ramming of air and process 1-2’ represents
actual ramming of air because of internal friction due to irreversibilities.
2) The process 2’-3 represents isentropic compression of air in the main compressor and
the process 2’-3’ represents actual compression of air because of internal friction due
to irreversibilities.
3) The process 3’-4 represents cooling of compressed air by ram air in the heat
exchanger.
4) The process 4-5 represents cooling of air in the regenerative heat exchanger.
5) The process 5-6 represents isentropic expansion of air in the cooling turbine upto the
cabin pressure and the process 5-6’ represents actual expansion of air in the cooling
turbine.
6) The process 6’-7 represents heating of air upto the cabin temperature.

Page 16
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
 Experiment No: – 3

Objective: -
To study vapor absorption refrigeration system
Introduction:
The vapour absorption refrigeration is a heat operated system. It is quite similar to
the mechanical vapour compression system which employs reciprocating, centrifugal or
rotary compressors. In both the systems, we have the evaporator and condenser. The
process of evaporation and condensation of the refrigerant takes place at two different
pressure levels to achieve refrigeration in both the cases. The difference between the two
systems lies in the method employed to create the two pressure levels in the system for
evaporation and condensation of the refrigerant. They also differ in the manner by which
circulation of the refrigerant in the system is achieved.
The refrigeration by mechanical vapour compression system is an efficient
method, however, the energy input in the shaft-work· which is· high grade energy and
therefore very expensive. The work required is relatively large because of compression of
vapour which undergo large changes in specific volume (For example, for an ideal
vapour compression system having C.O.P. of 4, the shaft-work will be'125 per cent of the
cooling effect obtained). Thus, if means are available for raising pressure of the
refrigerant from evaporator pressure to condenser pressure without much changing its
volume it is possible to reduce the shaft-work substantially (Refer Example 5.1). In order
to achieve this, in the vapour absorption system, the refrigerant vapour is dissolved in an
inert liquid at the same pressure as the evaporator and the solution so formed is pumped
to a container at condenser pressure. Thus, liquid which is practically incompressible and
undergoes practically no change in specific volume requires very little work for raising
its pressure. After raising the pressure, the refrigerant is separated from solution by
heating. This vapour which is at condenser pressure goes to the condenser, expansion
valve and evaporator just as in vapour compression cycle.

Page 17
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
Simple Water-NH3 vapour absorption system:
Refer Fig. 1 for a simple vapour absorption system. It consists of an absorber, a
pump, a generator and a pressure reducing valve to replace the compressor of vapour
compression system. The other components of the system are condenser, expansion valve
and evaporator as in the vapour compression system.
The ammonia vapour leaving the evaporator at point '1' is readily absorbed in the
low temperature hot solution in the absorber, releasing the latent heat of condensation.
The temperature of the solution tends to rise, while the absorber is cooled by the
circulating water, absorbing the heat of solution (QA)' and maintaining a constant
temperature.
Strong solution, rich in ammonia, is pumped (pump increases the pressure of the
solution up to l0 bar) to the generator where heat (QG) is supplied from an external
source (steam, electricity, gas flame, etc.) Since the boiling point of ammonia is less than
that of water, the ammonia vapour is given off from the aqua-ammonia solution at high
pressure, and the weak solution returns to the absorber through a pressure reducing valve.
The high pressure ammonia vapour from the generator is condensed in the
condenser to high pressure liquid ammonia.
This liquid ammonia is throttled by the expansion valve, and then evaporates,
absorbing the heat of evaporation from the surroundings or brine to be chilled. This
completes the simple vapour absorption cycle.
Practice Water-NH3 vapour absorption system:
Although a simple vapour absorption system can provide refrigeration yet its
operating efficiency is low (and not very economical). In order to improve the
performance and working of the plant following accessories are fitted
 Analyser
 Rectifier
 Heat exchangers

Page 18
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
 In driving the ammonia vapour out of the solution in the generator, it is
impossible to avoid evaporating some of the water. This water vapour going to the
condenser along with the ammonia vapour after condensation may get frozen to ice and
block the expansion valve. So an analyser-rectifier combination (Fig. 2) is used to
eliminate water vapour from the ammonia vapour going into the condenser.
1. Analyser:
The analyser (may be built as an integral part of the generator or made as a
separate piece of equipment) is a direct heat exchanger consisting of a series of trays
mounted above the generator. The strong solution from the absorber flows downward
over the trays to coo the outgoing vapours. Since the saturation temperature of water is
higher than that of ammonia at a given pressure, it is the water vapour which condenses
first. As the vapour passes upward through the analyser, it is cooled and enriched by
ammonia, and the liquid is heated. Thus the vapour going to the condenser is lower in
temperature and richer in ammonia, and the heat input to the generator is decreased.
2. Rectifier:
A rectifier is a water-cooled .heat exchanger which condenses water vapour (and
some ammonia) and sends back (by a drip return pipe) to the generator. Thus final
reduction or elimination of the percentage of water vapour takes place in the rectifier.
3. Heat exchangers:
The heat exchanger provided between the pump and the generator is used to cool
the weak hot solution returning from the generator to absorber. The heat removed from
the weak solution raises the temperature of the strong solution leaving the pump and
going to analyser and generator. This operation reduces the heat supplied to the generator
and the amount of cooling required for the absorber. Thus the plant economy is enhanced.
The heat exchanger provided between the condenser and the evaporator may also
be called sub cooler. In this heat exchanger, the liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser is
sub-cooled by the low temperature ammonia vapour from the evaporator (Ref. Fig. 5.2).
This sub-cooled liquid is now passed to the expans.ion valve and then to the evaporator.
The coefficient of performance of the system is given by:

Page 19
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
 Heat extracted from the evaporator
COP = --------------------------------------------
Heat supplied in the generator + Work done by the pump
Lithium Bromide absorption system:
In such a system lithium bromide salt (highly hygroscopic) is employed as the
absorbent and water as the refrigerant. The lithium bromide solution has a strong affinity
for water vapour because of its very low pressure. Since water is the refrigerant, the
refrigerant operating temperature in the evaporator has to be above the freezing point
(0C) of water. Lithium bromide solution is corrosive, as such, inhibitor like lithium
chromate is often used to protect the metal parts of the system against corrosion.
Fig. 3 shows a schematic arrangement of lithium bromide absorption refrigeration
system. The absorber and evaporator are housed in one cylindrical shell as they operate at
about the same pressure. The genera/or and condenser are enclosed in another cylindrical
shell as their operating pressures are near about the same. The evaporator contains
refrigerant (water) and the absorber has a charge of lithium bromide solution. The
solution from the absorber is pumped to the generator by the solution pump. Chilled
water tube bundle passes through the evaporator section of the shell, carrying the Water
to be cooled. The absorber and condenser sections have water tube bundles passing
through, in which cooling tower water is circulated. The condenser portion of the
generator shell has tube bundle to circulate cooling tower water to cool (and condensate)
the refrigerant (water) vapour. Refrigerant water is sprayed (through nozzles) over the
chilled water tube bundle by the evaporator pump. A heat exchanger is added to improve
the cycle efficiency.
Since water is used as a refrigerant in lithium bromide water absorption system, it
can be used where the temperatures required are above 4°C. Hence major fields of
applications are:
 Air-conditioning;
 Chilling of drinking water;
 Chilling of beverages and fruit juices

Page 20
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
Advantage of vapor absorption system over vapor compression system:
The following are the advantages of vapour absorption system over a mechanical
vapour compression refrigeration system,
 No moving part in the system except the aqua pump-motor. The pump-motor is
quite small as compared to .the compressor-motor in vapour compression system.
 Quiet in operation, very little wear, and low maintenance cost.
 Any readily source of thermal energy (process steam, hot exhaust from furnaces,
solar energy) may be used for the generator. Hence can be used in places where
electrical energy is not available, or is costly.
 Can be built in capacities much larger than that for compressor unit (The vapour
absorption system can be built in capacities well above 1000 tonnes of
refrigeration each of which is the largest size for single compressor units).
 Steam which is used for winter heating, same can be used in summer for heating
in the generator.
 In practice the temperature of vapour leaving the generator is of the order 340 K
against about 420 K in case of vapour compression system. Therefore smaller
condenser is required in the former than in the latter.
 The capacity of the absorption system is controlled (and maintained) by adjusting
the steam or generator temperature even if the evaporator pressure falls. On the
other hand the capacity of the compression system decreases rapidly with the
reduced evaporator pressure
 The absorption system can be operated at the designed C.O.P. even at part loads
or reduced evaporator conditions by the appropriate control of generator
temperature.
 The load variations do not affect the performance of a vapour absorption system.
The load variations are met by controlling the quantity of aqua circulated and the
quantity of steam supplied to the generator. The performance of vapour
compression system is poor at partial loads.

Page 21
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
  The absorption system is much more compact and less bulky than the
compression system for large capacity

Page 22
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
 Experiment No:- 4

Objective: To Study Psychometric terms

1. Introduction: -
The psychometry is that branch of engineering science, which deals with the study of
moist air i.e., dry air mixed with water vapour or humidity. It also includes the study of
behaviors of dry air and water vapour mixture under various sets of conditions. Thought
the earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases including nitrogen, oxygen, argon and
carbon dioxide, yet for the purpose of psychrometry, it is considered to be a mixture of
dry air and water vapour only.

2. Psychometric terms: -

2.1 dry air: -

The pure dry air is a mixture of a number of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon, helium etc. But the nitrogen and oxygen have the major
portion of the combination.

2.2 moist air: -

It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The amount of water vapour, present in the
air, depends upon the absolute pressure and temperature of the mixture.

2.3 saturated air: -

It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour, when the air has diffused the maximum
amount of water vapour into it. The water vapour, usually, occur in the form of
superheated stem as an invisible gas.

Page 23
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
2.4 degree of saturation: -
It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a unit mass of dry air to the mass of water
vapour in the same mass and pressure of dry air when it is saturated at the same
temperature.

2.5 humidity: -
It is the mass of water vapour present in 1 kg of dry air, and is generally expressed in
terms of gram per kg of dry air. I t is also called specific humidity or humidity ratio.

2.6 absolute humidity: -

It is the mass of water vapour present in 1 m 3 of dry air, and is generally expressed in
terms of gram per cubic-meter of dry air. It is also expressed in terms of grains per cubic
meter of dry air. Mathematically, one kg of water vapour is equal to 15430 grains.

2.7 relative humidity: -

It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour is a given volume of moist air to the mass of
water vapour in the same volume of saturated at the same temperature and pressure.

2.8 dry bulb temperature: -

It is temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when it is not affected by the moisture
present in the air. They dry bulb temperature is generally denoted by td or tdb .

2.9 wet bulb temperature: -

It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when its bulb is surrounded by a
wet cloth exposed to the air. Such a thermometer is called wet bulb thermometer. The wet
bulb temperature is generally denoted by tw , or twb .

2.10 wet bulb depression: -

Page 24
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
It is the difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature at any point.
The wet bulb depression indicates relative humidity of the air.
2.11 dew point temperature: -
It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when the moisture presenting its
begins to condense.

2.12 dew point depression: -

It is the difference between the dry bulb temperature and dew point temperature of air.

3. Thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or adiabatic saturation

temperature: -
The thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or adiabatic saturation temperature is the
temperature at which the air can be brought to saturation state, adiabatically, by the
evaporation of water into the flowing air.
The equipment used for the adiabatic saturation of air, in its simplest form, consist of an
insulated chamber containing adequate quantity of water. There is also an arrangement
for extra water to flow into the chamber from its top.
Let the unsaturated air enters at section1. As the air passes through the chamber over a
long sheet of water, the water evaporates which is carried with the flowing stream of air,
and the specific humidity of the air increases. The make up water is added to the chamber
at this temperature to make the water level constant. Both the air and water are cooled as
the evaporation takes place. This process continues until the energy transferred from the
air to the water is equal to the energy required to vaporized the water. When steady
conditions, the air flowing at section 2 is saturated with water vapour. The temperature of
the saturated air at section 2 is known as thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or
adiabatic saturation temperature.

Page 25
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
4. Psychometric processes: -
The various psychometric processes involved in air conditioning to vary the
psychometric properties of air according to the requirements are as below: -
1. Sensible heating
2. Sensible cooling
3. Humidification and dehumidification
4. Cooling and adiabatic humidification
5. Cooling and humidification by water injection
6. Heating and humidification
7. Humidification by steam injection
8. Adiabatic chemical dehumidification
9. Adiabatic mixing of air streams

4.1 sensible heating: -

The heating air without any change in its specific humidity is known as sensible heating.
Let air at temperature t dl passes over a heating coil temperature t d3 . It may be noted that
the temperature of air leaving the heating coil will be less than t d3. The process of sensible
heating, on the psychometric chart, is shown by a horizontal line 1-2 extending from left
to right as. The point 3 presents the surface temperature of the heating coil.

4.2 sensible cooling: -

The cooling of air, without any change in its specific humidity, is known as sensible
cooling. Let air at temperature t dl passes over a cooling coil of temperature t d3 . It may be
noted that the temperature of air leaving the cooling coil will be more than t d3.The process
of sensible cooling on the psychometric chart, is shown by a horizontal line 1-2 extending
from right to left. The point 3 represents the surface temperature of the cooling coil.

4.3 Humidification and dehumidification: -

Page 26
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
The addition of moisture to the air, without change in its dry bulb temperature, is known
as humidification. Similarly, removal of moisture from the air, with out change in its dry
bulb temperature is known as dehumidification process is shown on the psychometric
chart.
It may be noted that in humidification, the relative humidity increases from Φ 1 to Φ2 and
specific humidity also increases from W 1 to W2 as shown. Similarly, in dehumidification,
the relative humidity decreases from Φ 1 to Φ2 and specific humidity also decreases from
W1 to W2.
It may be noted that in humidification, change in enthalpy is shown by the intercept ( h 2 –
h1) on the psychometric chart. Since the dry bulb temperature of air during the
humidification remains constant, therefore, its sensible heat also remains constant. It is
thus obvious that the change in enthalpy per kg of dry air due to the increased moisture
content equal to (W2 – W1) kg per kg of dry air is considered causes a latent heat transfer
( LH) .

4.4 cooling and dehumidification: -

This process is generally used in summer air conditioning to cool and dehumidify the air,.
The air is passed over a cooling coil through a cold-water spray. In this process, the dry
bulb temperature as well as the specific humidity of air decreases. The final relative
humidity of the air is generally higher than that of the entering air. The dehumidification
of air is only possible when the effective surface of the cooling coil is less than the dew
point temperature of the entering the coil. The effective surface of the coil is known as
apparatus dew point.

4.5 cooling with adiabatic humidification: -

When the air is passed through an insulated chamber having sprays of water maintained
at a temperature higher than the dew point temperature of entering air, but lower than its
dry bulb temperature of entering air equal to the wet bulb temperature of the entering air
then the air is said to be cooled and humidified. Since no heat is supplied or rejected from

Page 27
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
the spray water as the same water is recirculated again and again. Therefore, in this case,
a condition of adiabatic saturation will be reached. The temperature of spray water will
reach the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature of the air entering the spray water. This
process is shown by line 1-3 on the psychometric chart. The path along the constant wet
bulb temperature line or constant enthalpy line.
In an ideal case i.e when the humidification is perfect, the final condition of the air will
be point 3. In actual practice, perfect humidification is never achieved. Therefore, the
final condition of air at outlet is represented by point 2 on the line 1-3.

4.6 cooling and humidification by water injection (evaporative cooling): -

Let water at a temperature tl is injected into the flowing stream of dry air. The final
condition of air depends upon the amount of water evaporation. When the water is
injected at a temperature equal to the wet bulb temperature of the entering air. When the
process follows the path of constant wet bulb temperature line.

4.7 heating and humidification: -

The process is generally used in winter air conditioning to warm and humidify the air. It
is the reverse process of cooling and dehumidification. When air is passed through a
humidifier having spray water temperature higher than the dry bulb temperature of the
entering air, the unsaturated air will reach the condition of saturation and thus the air
becomes hot. The heat of vaporization of water is absorbed from the spray water itself
and hence it gets cooled. In this way, the air becomes heated and humidified . The
process of heating and humidification is shown by line 1-2 on the psychometric chart as
shown. The air enters at condition 1 and leaves at condition 2. In this process, the dry
bulb temperature as well as specific humidity of air increases. The final relative humidity
of the air can be lower or higher than that of air increases. The final relative humidity of
the air can be lower or higher than that of the entering air.

Page 28
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
4.8 heating and humidification by steam injection: -
The steam is normally injected into the air in order to increase its specific humidity as
shown. This process is used for the air conditioning of textile mills where high humidity
is to be maintained. The dry bulb temperature of air changes very little during this
process, as shown on the psychometric chart.

4.9 heating and dehumidification –adiabatic chemical dehumidification: -

This process is mainly used in industrial air conditioning and can also used for some
comfort air conditioning installations requiring either a low relative humidity or low dew
point temperature in the room.
In this process, the air is passed over chemicals, which have an affinity for moisture. As
the air comes in contact with have an affinity for moisture. As the air comes in contact
with these chemicals, the moisture gets condensed out of the air and gives up its latent
heat. Due to the condensation, the specific humidity decreases and the heat of
condensation supplies sensible heat for heating the air and thus increasing its dry bulb
temperature. The process, which is the reverse of adiabatic saturation process, is shown
by the line 1-2 on the psychometric chart as shown. The path followed during the process
is along the constant wet bulb temperature line or constant enthalpy line.

4.10 adiabatic mixing of two air streams: -

When two quantities of air having different enthalpies and different specific humilities
are mixed. The final condition of the air mixture depends upon the masses involved, and
on the enthalpy and specific humidity of\each of the constituent masses, which enter the
mixtutre.
Now consider two air streams 1 and 2 mixing adiabatically as shown.
Let m1 = Mass of air entering at 1,
h1 = Enthalpy of air entering at 1,
w1 = Specific humidity of air entering at 1,
m2 , h2 , w2 = Corresponding values of air entering at 2, and

Page 29
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University
 m3 , h3 , w3 = Corresponding values of the mixture leaving at 3.

m1 h3−¿h
= 2
¿
m2 w 3−¿ w
h1−¿ h = 2
¿¿
3
w1−¿w ¿ 3

Page 30
Thermodynamic, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
School of Engineering
Department Of Agricultural Engineering
RK University