Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits Learning Objectives °s 0: il AEROS: ereaaae, After studying this chapter, students will be able to LO 1 Implement all the methods of circuit analysis and theorems through resi Loz ive network Analyse reduction of passive resistive network by series, parallel combinations and star/delta conversions LO3 Describe practical source conversion—voltage to current source and vice versa LO4 Examine nodal method and mesh method of circuit analysis and choose between them Los Define network theorems—their basis and applications, and implement Thevenin and Norton equivalents eee 2.1. INTRODUCTION Having enunciated the elemental laws and the two fundamental circuit laws, viz. KCL and KVL, governing equations can be written for any circuit. Certain organized techniques that mechanize circuit analysis will be presented here. Also, we shall present some simple techniques of network reduction and certain fundamental theorems that reduce any complex circuit to a simple form from which the circuit behaviour w.r.t. external elements can be visualized. All these techniques and theorems will be presented through resistive circuits which have the simplicity that only algebraic governing equations are involved. Thege, in later chapters, would be easily extended to circuits containing storage elements and hence integro-differential governing equations, 2.2 SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS OF RESISTANCES Resistance in Series A set of resistances are in a series when the same current circulates through them as illustrated in Fig. 2.1(a), Applying KVL around the loop, we get VEV4Vatu + Vy = RyI+ Rol +. Ryl = (Ry + Rpt AR Regl where, Reg = Ry + Ry +. Ry en The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.1(b).Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 45. For the resistive circuit (network) of Fig. 2.3, find the resistance seen a 402 » 502 between nodes ab and be Solution Proceeding by series~parallel combinations: 2 az son Ze ~ Ray (eq) = {{(12 + 8) 1120 + 5) 1130} + 10.420) 140 AW WW 15x30 a See (1336 + 30) 1140 =200 Fig.23 The reader should calculate Ry, (eq). In the single loop circuit of Fig. 2.4, find I. Solution Writing KVL equation in counter-clockwise direction, Lemf = DIR 14-SI-4=81451+71 8/4 51+51+4+471-14=0 Lies phakic! 2.3 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION Voltage Division Voltage can be reduced by a specified factor by dividing it across two resistors in a series as shown in Fig, 2.5. It easily follows that » v2 = Ryi = R, x Set EuaREE RS Ri) =(geR) =k 4) Voltage of any wave shape can be reduced by this method. By using the voltage divider circuit of Fig. 2.5, itis desired to obtain 3/4v. Find R,, given Ry = 1002. A load resistance R, is now connected in parallel with Rj. What will be the percentage change in output voltage if (i) R, = 10 kQ and (ii) R, = 1 kQ?48 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Pew Rap ° b Poe (a) (b) Fig. 2.9 (a) Delta-connected and (b) Star-connected networks Node pair be, Ry + Re = Rie ll (Reg + Rap) (2.8) Node pair ca, Ro +R = Regll Rap + Ryo) 9) Solving Bqs (2.7), (2.8) and (2.9) Y-A Conversion, id Ry= nt Rife + RRs (2.102) Rj = Raf + ReRe + ReRe 2.106) R,, = RoR + RoRe + ReRa (2.10¢) A-Y Conversion, ieee @u1a) 2s ee Re rae auc + Ric + Balanced Y-A, = A balanced ¥ (R,, = Ry = R, = Ry) le: ew. wos a y) leads to balanced A (Ryy = Rye = Ray = Ry) sae @12) Reduce the network of Fig. 2.10 to obtain the equivalent resi seh ieirecseede ar ea resistance as ah | sg aa Converting the Y at node b to A, a 7 R= B+ 8x2 42x4 999 4AxB+ Ryn AXB+EX242x4 9 120 Fig. 2.10Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 51 Ri ==vp Fig. 2.15 V-I characteristic of a practical current source It must be observed here that the current direction of the equivalent current source must be such as to produce the same open-circuit terminal voltage polarity as in the voltage source. It must be observed here that an ideal voltage source (R, = 0) cannot be converted to an equivalent current source (it would mean infinite current with a short-circuit in front). Similarly, an ideal current source ‘cannot be converted to an equivalent voltage source. General Methods of Circuit Analysis InChapter I, we presented two basic laws of circuit theory—Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff 's Voltage Law (KVL). Based on these two laws, there are two general methods of circuit analysis; the nodal ‘method based on KCL and the mesh method based on KVL. Before applying these methods, the circuit if possible is reduced in complexity by applying the reduction techniques presented in Sections 2.2 and 2.4. Further in applying nodal and mesh method to analyze a circuit, inter-conversion of voltage and current sources may be needed. This conversion has been presented in Section 2. Certain terms used in circuit analysis which were defined in Chapter 1 have been repeated below: Node {tis acircuit point where ends (terminals) of two or more circuit elements meet. Path It is.a traversal through elements from one node to another. Branch It is a path between two adjoining nodes. Loop tis a closed path starting and ending at the same node without going through the same node more than once. Mesh itis a loop that does not contain any other loop within it. Junction tis a node where three or more circuit elements (or branches) meet. Remark At a node where only two circuit elements need not be considered as this node can always be climinated by combination of elements or if one of these is a voltage source, the voltage at the node is known, it is not an unknown to be determined. Therefore in circuit analysis we are concerned with junction but we shall loosely use the term ‘node’ for a junction. ‘We will now proceed with nodal and mesh circuit analysis which follows by their comparison and choice thereof.52 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2.6 NODAL ANALYSIS It shall be assumed here that all sources are current sources and practical voltage 14 sources,* if any, have been converted to equivalent current source form. Let the circuit have N nodes in all. One of these nodes is chosen as the es reference (datum) node. The voltages of the remaining (NV ~ 1) nodes with respect to the reference node form an independent set of variables that implicitly satisfy KVL equations (we shal] observe in what follows that the voltage of any component is the difference of the voltages of the two nodes to which it is connected). (V - 1) KCL equations are written down at the nodes. For a resistive network this step results in (WV — 1) simultaneous algebraic equations in (N ~ 1) nodal voltages. Once the nodal voltages are obtained, any voltage and current in the network can be obtained from these. In writing the nodal equations, it is convenient but not necessary to convert all resistance values to conductances before proceeding with the analysis. For demonstration, consider the circuit of Fig. 2.16 (a). The lower two nodes are identical and can be merged for clarity as in Fig. 2.16 (b). Applying KCL at nodes 1 and 2, respectively, Node 1 =i, + Gay, + Gy(v, - v2) =0 216 Node 2: iy + Gyn + Gy. — 4) =O @17) Fig. 2.16 Rearranging, Node 1: (G+ Gy, - Gv) =i, (2.18)** Node 2: ~Gyv, + G, + Gv, =-, 2.19)" With given values of i, andi, (source currents), Eqs (2.18) P ! 2 18) and (2. possible to generalize these equations for an N-node system which a A ae ‘tad Loin ihe “The case where an ideal voltage source is connected between two nodes is dealt within Appendix A ** Equations (2.18) and (2.19) can be written in matrix form as: y G+G -G Ima od ~G (G+ Gs) el) it {6} = (i) diagonal elements = sum of all admittance admittances connected between the t connected at the node; off-diagonal elements = minus the sum of all [pf =vector of node ahages 0 Pes Ds node adminanes matic a symmetis mati 41} = vector of currents ofall current sources entering at each node,Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 53 Using equations (2.18) and (2.19) and plugging in the values, we have 1.2v, - 0.29, -0.2v; + 0.7, Solving, we get y=52V, 1 =5V For the circuit of Fig. 2.17 (a), find all the node voltages and the currents in resistances 0.25 © and 1/3 Q. Use the nodal method, Fig. 2.17 Since one of the sources is a voltage source with series resistance, it is first converted to a current source and all resistances are converted to conductances. The circuit is redrawn in Fig. 2.17 (b) where 4 nodes are identified and labelled 1, 2, 3 and the datum node 0. Writing KCL equations at the three nodes. Voltages at these nodes w.r.t. datum node are ¥), V2. ¥s- respectively. Node 1: (6-4-7) +49, + 3(0 — v9) +4, ~ 9) = 0 or Ly, -3y;-4v=5 @ Node 2: 7+ vq + Hv ~ V4) + 2002-99) = 0 or -3v, + 6v) —2¥,=-7 Gi) Node 3: 6 + 55 + 204 — v9) + 4(¥5 - v4) = 0 or Av, — 2v, + 11y, =6 Gi) Using Cramer's rule,* is Gaussian Elimination. On the other56 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering en V,=222¥, V,=171V 22.2 - 17.62 =2.55 A For the circuit of Fig. 2.20 find the value of V, and V>. Also find the power inpuvoutput of the current and voltage sources, Solution To apply nodal analysis, 5 V source cannot be and need not be converted to current source as voltage V, is known to be +5 V Node Vj: Node V;; lyg(14141)y_1 hus (}+5 +g) px5=0 These equations are rewritten as: 2V,-V,=10 ~4V, + 19V, = 25 Solving we get, V,=6325V, V,=2.65V Current source output = 1 x 6.325 = 6.325 W Current output of voltage source: = (5-2.65)/2 + (5 -6.325)/5 91 A x0.91=455W Output of voltage source = ‘Using nodal analysis determine V, in the circuit of Fig. 2.21 (a). Fig. 2.21 (a)Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 57 Solution Convert the voltage source of 9V to current source as drawn below: ° ai 45 -»ma([) Zossia 2 45 KO 7mA =13mA . Fig. 2.21(b) Fig. 2.21(c) Combining it with current source of 7 mA, the net current source is drawn in Fig. 2.21 (c). The complete circuit is drawn in Fig. 2.21 (). ; Fig. 2.21(d) Writing nodal equations: Nodal 1: 13454 gigs Wig =0 VYn=(-%) @ Nodal 2: VeVi 02y,-5 =o 02(V,-V,)-5+ FV =0 i) Rearranging Eqs (i) and (ii): ia 1 . —_+—|V-|—|V,==11 Gi) (era) () ~e (02 -h)K+({-02)8=5 0) (iii) and (iv), we find 10.35 V V, = -60.35 Vy 60 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering rere ‘Analyse the circuit of Fig. 2.25 (a) by the mesh method. From the results, calculate the current in the 502 resistance, ie en ton ea a, oa 4 on GD) d 5a f 5a ao ) Brea 4 oe 4 @ © Fig. 2.25 8a 2a eV Solution The practical current source of Fig. 2.25 (a) is first converted to voltage source asin Fig, 2.25 (b), Three meshes are immediately identified with associated currents i,, i, and i;. KVL equations for the three meshes are written as follows (directly in organized form), Mesh 1: (10 +6 + 8), ~ 6i,~ 81, = 16 or, 2Aiy ~ 6:2 - Bi, = 16 @ Mesh 2: bin + (6+ 9 + Sin Sis=0 or, bi + 201, - 5is=0 i Mesh 3: Sin +(8+5+12)i5=0 or, -8i, ~5i, + 25i,=0 i) Solving Eqs (i), (ii) and (ii) i; = 0.869 A, i, = 0.348 A and iy = 0.348 A Current through 5 @ resistance = i; ~ i, =0A iqeistanees 60, 80, 90 and 120 form a bridge. When any resistance is connected across a balanced bridge, it will not carry any current. Also observe, 3 = (equal bridge arms ratio) Fig. 2.26 (a)y @2 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering dependent source, find the value of v, using mesh anal For the circuit of Fig. 2.28 (a) wi Fig. 2.28 (a) Solution Converting current sources to voltage sources, the circuit modifies to Fig. 2.28 (b). The two mesh equations are: -10 + Si, -6 + 3(i, -i,) +21, + 4v,=0 @ 644i + i, i,)=0 (i) But, v= Hi iy Fig. 2.28 (b) Substituting for v, in Eq. (i) 10 +7i, + 15(i, -i,) =0 6-3i,+7i=0 Or, 221 ~ 15%, = 10 -3i, + Ti =-6 Solving we get, Then, W=IL6A, pada = 3-4) = 22.564 Bosic Electrical and Electronics Engineering = ne For the circuit of Fig. 2.30, find the voltage v,. by the technique of nodal analysis, 058 2 a si f an D on ots Fig. 2.30 Solution Writing nodal equations for nodes 1 and 2: Node 1. 4+0.1y, +0.5(y, -¥)) =0 or 0.6) ~0.5v,=4 a Node 2 Si, +0.4¥, +0.5(v,- v4) =0 But, 4, = 0.5 - v4) 2.5()- v2) + 0.4V, + 0.5(¥- v4) =0 or, 2y - 1.6r,=0 a Solving Eqs (i) and (ii), For the circuit of Fig. 2.31 find v, Solution Converting the dependent current source with we can redraw the circuit of Fig. 2.31 as in Fig, 2.32, ‘Writing mesh equations for the circuit of Fig. 2.32, Mesh 1: Fig. 2.31 -160V »,=-200V ~160- (-200) = 40 v using mesh analysis technique. 120 109 05y, Parallel resistance 6 Q to dependent voltage source, 14i,~2i, = 100 @ Mesh 2: ~2i, +181, =-3y, But, y= ii, ~2i + 181, =-6(,-i,) or, 4i, + 12iy =0 ) Solving Eqs (i) and (ii), = 682A i =-227A 4) 26.82 +2.27)=182VFundamentals of Resistive Circuits 65 120 109 6a Fig, 2.32 Comparison—Nodal vs Mesh Analysis The choice between nodal or mesh analysis of a circuit depends upon the following factors: + Number of simultaneous equations to be solved * If we need the answer in terms of voltage, the choice would be the nodal analysis. When answer is needed in terms of current, obvious choice is the mesh analysis. This is not a rigid rule, by the use of ‘Ohm's law, the answer in voltage can be converted to desired currents and vice versa. ‘We will illustrate this by an example. Analyse the circuit of Fig. 2.33 by (a) nodal method and (b) by mesh method. Compare the results of (a) and (b). 5KQ —4(y)- 10K WW WW 0) = z~ Sv 0 Fig. 2.33 Solution (a) Nodal Method This is only one independent node (1), the other (0) being the datum node. Note that the connections between voltage source and resistance need not be considered as node as voltages at these are known Nodal equation: elo, SK 2K 10K tt 8B, 16 (542 +10)"=5 + 10 Or, (245+ Iv, = 16 + 16 = 3266 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (b) Mesh Method There are two meshes as shown in Fig. 2.33. Mesh equation: -8 + 5i, + 2(i, =i) =0 16 + 2(i, ~i,) + 10i =0 = Ti, -2i,=8 -2i, + 121) =-16 Solving, we get, j=08mA, jpeioee Let us say we need the voltage at node 1, v, =2Kx (i, - i) =2x 10° x 2x 109=4V Based on the number of equations the choice here is in favour of the nodal method. 2.9 NETWORK THEOREMS—SUPERPOSITION THEOREM Certain network theorems are very helpful in circuit analysis and give a simplified #6I! ———— way of visualising the response of a complex network when connected to another : network (usually simpler of the two), z Superposition Theorem The response of a network (voltage across or current through an element) with several independent sources can be obtained as the sum of the responses to sources, taken one at a time as a consequence of circuit linearity. In removing sources other than one, voltage sources are short circuited and current sources are open circuited. This will be illustrated with the help of an example. It may also be noted that sources are often called forcing functions (excitations or generators) and voltage and/or current desired are known as responses. In the circuit of Fig. 2.34 (a) find the node voltages v, and v, using the superposition theorem. “4 5a ie PD “ Om Fig. 2.34 (a) Solution (@) Only the current source is applied and the voltage source is shorted. The resultant circuit is presented in Fig. 2.34 (b), Equivalent resistance parallel to left side 2 9 resistance = (2112) +5 = 6 Q Hence, current in 2 0 resistance hadnt =3A, v()=3x2= v =4~i,= 1A, vy) =¥()-(x1)=6-S=1V Lay68 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Ige=. short-circuitourrent which flows from ato b when terminals ab are shorted after di Isc= short-circ NN, Observe that the direction of current in Norton equivalent is such as to produce the a open-circuit polarity as in the Thevenin's equivalent. Ttis easly seen thatthe Norton equivalent follows from the Thevenin equivalent by source conven and also vice versa. In the Thevenin equivalent we will write Voc = Vi the Thevenin voltage Ry = Rr, the Thevenin resistancé In the Norton equivalent we will write Ry = Ry, the Norton resistance Obviously Ry= Ron From the source conversion results of Section 2.5, it immediately follows that gc = Yee = Von Ria Ts ead ‘When N> is connected at terminals ab of the Thevei However, the information on currents and voltages in the When dependent sources are Present, the above associated current/voltage are both located in N, is to take on a series of values. When dependent sources are present in N,, n/Norton equivalent, it will yield an identical elements of N, prior to connecting Nis lost. quivalents assume that a dependent source and ity ‘The Thevenin theorem is particularly useful when the load itis convenient to obtain Ry from Eq (2,24) as Brn aiye 225) ‘Thus, in a practical circuit Ryy can be obtained from two Measurements, open-circuit voltage and shor circuit current. However, care should be taken in short-circuiting the output terminals? Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalents ofthe circuit of Fig 2.38 as seen at terminal ab. ' 202 1A 8a + R 32 : Fig. 2.38 2 Solution Thevenin Equivalent (a) To find Thevenin’s equivalent, voltage = Vo. * Remove load resistance R causing open-circuit at ab, * Replace 1 A source and 8 © resistance in parallel with it by its equivalent voltage source. The circuit is drawn in Fig. 2.39,70 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering —_@ (b) To find Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, Ro. ; As calculated in the Thevenin equivalent 20 24) Bo R=Da 3 3 (©) Norton equivalent is drawn in Fig. 2.44. Baa 4 Check: Voc = 2.4 x 20/3 = 16 V (same as in Thevenin equivalent) Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 2.45 which has one dependent current generator. 109 a Fig. 2.45 Solution (a) To find V,, or Voc Converting the current source into a voltage source, we get the circuit of Fig. 2.46. 100 From KVL for the single loop — 100 + 10/ + 20/ + 70/ =0 Or, T=1A 3 Voc = 100-10 x1 90V (b) To find Ry, or Ry Itis obvious that Rp, the Thevenin’s resistance, cannot be found by short circuiting the independent source (100 V) as the dependent current source also gets eliminated, So we find short-circuit current in Fig. 2.47. 10972 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering By superposition, 32, Wey Voc = Voc, + Vou, == +3 = 16V Isc Isc, + Isc, = 1.6408 =2.4 A Thus, results are similar as in example 2.22. 2.11 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM tos When a network is loaded by a resistance at two of its terminals, the situation can be represented by the Thevenin equivalent asin Fig. 2.50. We want o investigate the power delivered to Joa resistance Rati varie Load power, P,=PR, which gives the result, R,=Ry 2.26) ‘The condition of Eq. (2.26) which states that power delivered (transferred) to load is maximum when load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance of the source is known as the maximum power transfer theorem. With reference to the circuit of Fig. 2.50, under conditions of maximum power transfer. Power output by source Ps= Voc xp i. ae Ry, ha res 38) R= A of wransfer -0r 50%Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 73 This is too low an efficiency for energy conversion devices; such devices must have load resistance far larger than that corresponding to the condition of maximum power transfer. However, in electronic devices the objective is to obtain maximum power output irrespective of device efficiency and hence the condition is always used at the power stage of an electronic system. Of course, the 50% power lost in the system (devices and components) must be suitably dissipated to limit temperature rise. For the network of Fig. 2.51, find the value of the battery current (7) using network reduction techniques. 2.51, convert delta ABD to star, so that the circuit takes the form of Solution With reference to Fig. 2.52, where Ryy = (8+ 128 + 12 +4) =42 Ryy = (8 +4)/24 = 1.33.2 Rpw= (4x 12)/24 =2Q Using the series-parallel reduction technique, we get Req = 10 +4 + (1.33 + 15) (2 + 16) T= 12/22.56 = 0.532 A =22.56.2 tT 2 Fig. 2.51 In the resistive circuit of Fig. 2.53 with a dependent source find the value of v,. 4916 Bosic Electrical and Electronics Engineering © P(1 mV source) = Vx1= 10° x 0.0117 x 10° = 11.7 x 10° pw (@) Power supplied by the dependent source = Vi=10°h x1, (x 0.0117 x 10° 0.447 x 10° 23 x 109 WW Using the Thevenin theorem reduce the circuit of All resistance value are in ohms. ay} Wt 60V = eov b g * 3 Fig. 2.59 (a) Solution As seen from terminals . Vii = 30 x35 9P¢5 = 20V Ry = 30 11 60 = 20 As seen from terminals cd 40 Vin 2= 80x geegy=32V Ry = 401160 = 24 Q The circuit with the Thevenin equivalent is drawn in Fig. 2.59 (b). Net voltage round the loop: NM-M 2 ev AR 24 av R 720 I Fig. 2.59 (b) You 00 a Fig. 2.59 (0) =48V Ry = 20 + 24 = 44Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 79 Now, V,24l=4% 3.22128 From the right node, -h=32-06 =26A ‘The circuit model of a battery charger and battery is drawn in Fig. 2.62. ‘The variable resistance R controls the charging current. Determine R for (a) Charging current of 5 A (b) Power delivered to battery of 12.5 W (©) Voltage at battery terminals of 13 V Solution (@) By KVL =15-+ (0.02 +R +0.035)1+ 12: (R + 0.055)/ = 15 - 12: s SA mie 5R+0.275=2.5 Or, R=0445Q9 (b) Power delivered at battery terminals P= 12.51+0.035P =25 W 0.0357 + 12.51-25 = 0 = 2125+ V(12.5)? + 4x 25x 0.035 _ i ane = 199A Solving, we get, I= 1.99 A, negative value is rejected. To find R applying KVL, (R + 0.055) x 1.99 = 12.5 e R=1200 (©) Voltage at battery terminals = 13 V Tel. 1428 KVL round the loop, Sowing wet (102+ ¥14.28= 13 ving we get, R=0.129Pe ticks Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering —— In the circuit Fig. 2.63 given i(t) = sin 2, find i, (0 4H 7 i) wf) % San 1 Sa Fig. 2.63 Solution jesin2t ype Ltn LG sin = Dens 2t v,(4Q)= 4sin 2t yay, +4 Q) =2.cos 21+ 4 sin 2¢ 2. Q) = v/2 = cos 21 +2 sin 2t ipa chat xB =-4 sin 2+ 8 e052 We, then have, i+i@Q)+iF) = sin 2+ (cos 2t +2 sin 21) + (-4 sin 2t + 8 cos 21) = sin 2t+9 cos 2t @ Let Acos6=1, Asind=9 Atz149?=82, A=V82=9.06 tn 9=4, 0 =83.6° i, = 9.06 sin (2t + 83.6°) For the circuit of Fig. 2.64, determine the relationship between v and i.Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 81 Solution Itis seen that we can find v» by applying KCL at node 2, »5 = v yy Mav, ma 10 2+ gt @ 1 1 a ital, (20+ 10+ 10)"=(i0)”+1 0.25 vy) =0.1v 41 y= 0.4v+4 Gi) Now applying KCL at node 3, yon ,¥=10 jag 10 20 0.15¥-0.1y,-1-i=0 From (ii) substituting for v2 0.15v - 0.1(0.4v + 4) - 1 - 0.19v-04-1-i=0 Or, v=5.26i + 3.16, is the required relationship. 10k For the circuit of Fig. 2.65 (a). (a) Determine R such that the source delivers a power of 4 mW. (b) Determine R that results in 10 kQ resistor to absorb 1.6 mW of power (c) Replace R by a voltage source that will cause no power to be absorbed by any = Tesistor. Solution (a) Total series resistance, R,= 10+ 15 +R =25+RkQ 18kKQ. Power delivered by the source: Fig. 2.65 (a) P= 10402 Solving, we get, R= 11k (6) P(1OkQ) = 10/7 = 1.6mW, 1=0.4 mW ww) ww) 12 5 opie tea mans ‘en (©) No power absorbed means / = 0. Therefore, the voltage source is 12 V in opposition as ip Fis 2-65 (>)82 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Compute the equivalent resistance as indicated in Fig. 2.66, if each resistor is 1 kQ. Solution Ttis easy to see from the circuit that three 1 KQresistances are __t_] es in parallel. From the figure, = 1 Be Rytlt yey Fig. 2.66 ‘The right-most 1 k@ resistance does not have its one end connected so it has no contribution in R,,, Find R,, in the resistance network shown in Fig. 2.67. Solution We find the three resistances are in parallel. R, = 40 (80 + 40) 1 60 i 1 1 1 0 * 120 * 60 _ 120 “34142 30 || (10 + 20) = 15 Finally, Fig. 2.67 =20+15=35kQ In the circuit of Fig. 2.68 (@) Determine i,. (b) Power dissipated in 10 kQ2 resistor. All resistances are in kQ. Solution (a) By series-parallel combinations, we fin zi , we find the equivalent (Raq) across 6 V—source. oe Reg = {UG |] 40) + 15} 15) + 10kQ 19.44]15 +10 eee = 8.47 +10 = 18.47kQ fe re R, TATR 48 HAFundamentals of Resistive Circuits 83 In the circuit of Fig. 2.69 (a) determine the power dissipated in resistor R. av +\\\> R 2K tka Saka Fig. 2.69 (a) Solution To begin with we will take two steps 3 13=0.75kQ = Convert current source to voltage source M———*M= V,=20mA x2K=40V : ‘The circuitis now drawn in Fig. 2.69 (b) tae EBs G+ 075)KQ Power dissipated in R, P= VI=8x 11.64 mA = 93.12 mW Fig. 2.69 (b) In the resistance circuit of Fig. 2.70, find @ Lith =12mA (b) [if f)=20mA © hifl,=6mA @ Lif l=45mA 5 2 0.75 Ka =11.64mA84 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering R, = 30 | 60) + 10 = 302 v. hee Ry ‘Then, 1210x2222 n10mA 30+60 3 30 needs Y 30 + 60 Or, y= 20. i= 3x 6= 18 mA 30 (@) The current J flows through 2.5 & and then divides as 1, and I, Bs | Ry=54+10= 152, R)=302 Ri+Ry 15__15mA 15 +3 ‘Again by current division, [215x025 mA 30+ 60 Tn the circuit shown in Fig. 2.71, find I, by superposition theorem. 2Q 12 + 10V ton | 340 2a [Aa > re Fig. 2.71 ace current source of 14 A by open circuit. Repair 10 resistor by open circuit as this resistor is across ideal voltage source. 29 19 Fig. 2.72 R= 042 1442= 24420371480 lov.Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 85 (b) To find current contribution by current source of 14 A. (i Replace voltage source by short circuit ii) Replace 10 @ by open circuit, as current through this 10.9 is zero. ii) The circuit is reduced to 22 19 0) S40 2a [f]wa > 20 (y]ua Fig. 2.73 RaQ) 41-241 . ’ eB LOWE Total current I, = 1,(V) + (i) =115+2.15=3.30A ‘In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.75, find Is, For = 10 A. (Use superposition theorem) 42 102 + = zovC ) 4a 40 On Fig. 2.75 Solution 3 T=lytlo (@) To find fy) Replace /; by open circuit, Ry = (14114) +4 G22 =7119 : oom iat86 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (b) To find (i) Replace voltage source by short circuit, New circuit is 4a ly > Rea (4]4 Fig. 2.77 Ry = (4114) + 10= 120 _ TAS 0m 16 2.5-1,=40 25-40=1, 375=1, ‘This shows that in order to have current 10 A, in 10 Q resistor, the current source should be connected in_ opposite direction. Find the resistance between terminals A and B, in Fig. 2.78. 100 Fig. 2.78Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 87 Fig. 2.79 Ryp= 15112 = 1.76 shown in Fig. 2.80, find V, such that /, = 15 Amp. Find power consumed by the circuit. Me h f a s0vy d10v, 7 30¥ Fig. 2.80 Solution From the circuit diagram, 10V, =-1, @ Applying KVL to left circuit V,-10=V, a) From (i) and (ii) 10(V, ~ 10) == = =15 10V, ~ 100 =-15 10V, = 85 V,=85 by Resistance 588 Bosic Electrical and Electronics Engineer'"9 —_—_— it shown in Fig. 2.81 4 in circu FFind current in 10 02 resistor using Thevenin theorem i 20 52 WM all + 41 + 16V Fig. 2.81 Solution To obtain Thevenin equiv (a) Find Vi, = Voc open ci alent circuit, ireuit voltage at A and B terminals. Va = Voc = Vas = 81 Applying KVL, 10=(10+ 8-47 121.142 ~ Vay = 9-142 V (©) Itisobvious that to find Ry, the Thevenins resistance cannot be found by short circuiting voltage sources 109 50 1 as the current in 8 Q also becomes zero. Hence, to find Ry, ( Short circuit A and B terminals to find Isc. Gi) Ry = tev Isc ae Fig. 2.82 16 +41 = 10, +) +81 @ : 81=5 ly P Solving (i) by keeping Isc = 5 in equation (i) eas 16+ 41= 10/27 +1) +87 16 +41 = 161+ 101+ 8/ = 341 16 =307 16 I= 30 Ry= 10.712 8 16 Tonle a sc= 5% 50 = 0.853 A ONG aa Fig. 2.8390 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering The equivalent resistance of N series resistors is Ryy = Ry + Ry +» + Rw The equivalent resistance of N parallel resistors is = 4h + fe t+ be Star/delta conversion of the three resistors aids in reduction of the passive resisior network Before applying general methods of network analysis, if possible, the passive part ofthe network should be reduced by above three ways. The general methods of circt summarized in the text. Superposition is often used when the contribution of in is required. Circuit model of a practical voltage source is an ideal voltage source with a seri Circuit model of a practical current source is an ideal current source with a resistance in parallel voit. ‘ource and vice versa. The same is not possible wit analysis are the nodal method and mesh method. These have been well dividual sources to the complete response ofthe circu ies resistance. {A practical voltage source can be converted to practical current s for ideal voltage and current sources. Inter-conversion of sources (some time repeatedly) greatly simplifies circuit analysis. ‘The Thevenin equivalent of a network at two ofits terminals is an independent voltage source with a resistance in series with it. ‘The Norton equivalent of a net in parallel with it. ‘Attwo terminals of a network Vip = Voc and Ry is the resistance seen from the terminals with all voltage in the network short-circuited and all current sources open-circuited. The dependent sources are left as they are, “The Norton equivalent current is Igc the short-circuit current atthe terminals. The Norton resistance Ry = Rry- Viu!Rrw work at two of its terminals is an independent current source with a resistance Maximum power is transferred to a load at two of a network when Ry = Rry- Review Questions In the voltage dividing circuits of Fig. 2.6, investigate the effect of load R, across R, on the voltage division pio (Loi @0° In the current dividing circuit of Fig. 2.7, investigate the effect of connecting load resistance R,_ across the current divider. (103 000] Define a mesh. [Los €00) ‘A node where only two elements meet does not require a nodal equation, Explain why? 04 @00 Give one important basis for the choice between nodal and mesh analysis of a circuit. 104 008) ‘Superposition theorem is applicable only for __circuits. (Fill in the blank),resistance Rry? 9. Explain how a practical voltage source is converted to a current source. 10. Explain how a practical current source is converted to a voltage source, 11, Prove the maximum power theorem, Problems ee 22 250. |e 10V 500 Fig. 2.85 22 Inthe circuit of Fig. 2.86, each resistance is 1 Q. Find the value of V,. 13V Fig. 2.86 2.3 In Fig. 2.87, find the value of R,,- Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 7. As seen from the two terminals of a circuit, how are Voc and Isc related to the Thevenin 8. Show that the Thevenin and Norton equivalents of a network have the same value of the resistance. 2.1 For the resistive circuit of Fig. 2.85, using the method of series-parallel combination, find V, and Za0a 102 @00)92 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering A and B and (i) A and y, 24 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.88, find the equivalent resistance between ( 102 A 52 102 c 252 a Fig. 2.88 2.5 For the circuit of Fig. 2.89, find the nodal voltage> adhe current through the 20 resistance, [LOS 08 7A Fig. 2.89 16 For the circuit of Fig. 2.90, find the nods! voltages. From the symmetry of nodal equations went generalized conclusions. for 000) eg fs “) oO (Des Fig. 2.90 27 nthe circuit of Fig, 291, find the voltage V, across the 69 res att es ‘method of circuit analysis. e dal method, [Los 0¢) 8a 49Fundamentals of Resistive Circuits 93 find the current through 10.2 resistance across BD. Itis suggested that you use 102 0 nthe bridge circuit of Fig. 2.92, 28 ey method of analy. 12V Fig. 2.92 29 rorthe circuit of Fig. 293, determine the currents in all the elements 5A 19 5a 5v y 2a 3a Fig. 2.93 20 set cut of Fig-254 wee nodal eqontonin tes fant gum vats sandsFundamentals of Resistive Circuits 97 2.22 In the circuit of Fig. 2.106, find the current /, using the principle of superposition. LOS O@: 150 10 [Ds Fig, 2.106 2.23. Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 2.107 to the left of XY. av Fig. 2.107 Objective Type Questions 2 Three resistances of value R @ each are connected ina star. Its equivalent delta will comprise three resistances of value @ are () 3k (© 9K @R (Lor oes) 2.2. For the circuit of Fig. Q2.1, the Thevenin voltage and resistance as seen to the right of ab terminals are Two @ 4v,09 a (b) 4V, 22 © ov,0a @ ov, =a 23. The Thevenin voltage and resistance ofthe circuit in Fig. Q2.2 seen from terminals ab are ca +{ 20 av 1A S20 -b Fig. Q2.2 fa) 2V,19 (b) 4V,19 pve @1V,2a98 Bosic Electrical and Electronics Engineering , ource. 2.4 For the circuit shown in Fig. Q2.3, find current supplied by voltage 5 a Ovov 2a an GWA 3h Fig. Q2.3 -10A @1 4 @o @ 2.5. Inthe Fig. Q2.4, the value of R is ao (b) 120 © 142 @ 242 103 O68]