Proton +1 1 Identity

(p+)

General Chemistry
Chapter 1
Introduction: Matter, Energy and Measurement
Neutron 0 1 Radioactivity
Chemistry (n) (Nuclear
Stability)
 Chemistry is the study of matter, its Electron -1 0 Reactivity
properties, and the changes it undergoes. (e-)

Methods of Classification
 Compound- made of atoms from two or
State of Matter (state=phase) more different elements

 Solid, Liquid and Gas Elements and Composition

State Shape Volume  There are currently 118 named elements.

Solid Definite Definite  Only five elements make up 90% of the
Liquid Indefinite Definite Earth’s crust by mass.
Gas Indefinite Indefinite  Only three elements make up 90% of the
human body by mass!
 Solid-Liquid (Melting)
Representing Elements
 Liquid-Gas (Evaporation)
 Gas-Liquid (Condensation)  Chemists usually represent elements as
 Liquid- Solid (Freezing) symbols.
 Symbols are one or two letters; the first is
always capitalized.
Composition of Matter
 Some elements are based on Latin, Greek,
Matter or other foreign language names

 is anything that has mass and takes up Compounds and Composition

space
 Compounds have a definite composition.
 elements are compared to only one kind of
That means that the relative number of
atom
atoms of each element in the compound is
the same in any sample.
 Pure Substance
 This is The Law of Constant Composition
1. Atomic
(or The Law of Definite Proportions).
2. Molecular
3. Compounds Classification of Matter—Mixtures
 Mixture
1. Homogenous Mixture (Solutions)  Mixtures- exhibit the properties of the
(Non-Identifiable) substances that make them
2. Heterogenous Mixture 1. Homogenous Mixture
(Identifiable) 2. Heterogenous Mixture
Classification of Matter—Substances 2 Types of Properties
 distinct properties and a composition that Physical Properties
does not vary from sample to sample  It can be observed without changing a
1. Element is a substance which cannot be substance into another substance.
decomposed to simpler substances.  Some examples include color, odor,
2. Compound is a substance which can be density, melting point, boiling point, and
decomposed to simpler substances hardness
because it is made up of more than one
element Chemical Properties
 It only be observed when a substance is
Classification of Matter—Based on Composition
changed into another substance.
 Atoms- simplest substance studied under
Types of Properties
chemistry
- building blocks of matter  Intensive properties are independent of the
amount of the substance that is present.
Charges Ions Property it
impacts
 – Examples include density, boiling point, or
color. – These are important for identifying
a substance.
 Extensive properties depend upon the
amount of the substance present. Units of Measurement—Metric System
– Examples include mass, volume, or
energy.  The base units used in the metric system
– Mass: gram (g)
Types of Changes – Length: meter (m)
– Time: second (s or sec)
 Physical changes are changes in matter – Temperature: degrees Celsius (°C) or
that do not change the composition of a Kelvins (K)
substance. – Amount of a substance: mole (mol)
–Examples include changes of state, – Volume: cubic centimeter (cc or cm3) or
temperature, and volume. liter (l)
 Chemical changes result in new
substances. Mass and Length
– Examples include combustion, oxidation,
 These are basic units we measure in
and decomposition.
science.
Separating Mixtures  Mass is a measure of the amount of
material in an object. SI uses the kilogram
• Mixtures can be separated based on physical as the base unit. The metric system uses
properties of the components of the mixture. Some the gram as the base unit.
methods used are  Length is a measure of distance. The meter
is the base unit
Separation thru
Filtration By particle size Volume
Distillation By boiling point
Chromatography By solubility  The most commonly used metric units for
volume are the liter (L) and the milliliter
(mL).
1. Filtration- solid substances are separated  not a base unit for SI; it is a derived unit
from liquids and solutions from length
2. Distillation- uses differences in the boiling
points of substances to separate a Temperature
homogeneous mixture into its components
3. Chromatography- technique separates  considered the “hotness and coldness” of
substances on the basis of differences in an object that determines the direction of
the ability of substances to adhere to the heat flow.
solid surface, in this case, dyes to paper  The Celsius and Kelvin scales are most
often used
Energy 1. Celsius scale is based on the
properties of water
 Energy is the capacity to do work or – 0 °C is the freezing point of
transfer heat. water.
 Work is the energy transferred when a force – 100 °C is the boiling point of
exerted on an object causes a water.
displacement of that object. 2. Kelvin is the SI unit of
 Heat is the energy used to cause the temperature.
temperature of an object to increase. – It is based on the properties of
 Force is any push or pull on an object gases. –There are no negative
Kelvin temperatures.
Two Fundamental Forms of Energy –The lowest possible
temperature is called absolute
 Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. zero (0 K).
– Its magnitude depends on the object’s • K = °C + 273.15
mass and its velocity: KE = ½ m v2 3. Fahrenheit
 Potential energy of an object depends on its -The Fahrenheit scale is not used
relative position compared to other objects in scientific measurements, but
you hear about it in weather
Units of Measurements—SI Units reports!
• The equations below allow for
 Système International d’Unités (“The conversion between the
International System of Units”) Fahrenheit and Celsius scales:
 A different base unit is used for each – °F = 9/5(°C) + 32
quantity. – °C = 5/9(°F − 32)

Density

 Density is a physical property of a

substance.
  It has units that are derived from the units  If two elements, A and B, form more than
for mass and volume. one compound, the masses of B that
 The most common units are g/mL or g/cm3. combine with a given mass of A are in the
 D = m/V ratio of small whole numbers.
 John Dalton discovered this law while
Numbers Encountered in Science developing his atomic theory.
 When two or more compounds exist from
 Exact numbers are counted or given by the same elements, they cannot have the
definition same relative number of atoms
 Inexact (or measured) numbers depend on
how they were determined. Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Accuracy versus Precision 1) Each element is composed of extremely

small particles called atoms
 Precision is a measure of how closely
individual measurements agree with one 2) All atoms of a given element are identical to
another. one another in mass and other properties,
 Accuracy refers to how closely individual but the atoms of one element are different
measurements agree with the correct, or from the atoms of all other elements
“true,” value. 3) Atoms of an element are not changed into
atoms of a different element by chemical
Significant Figures
reactions; atoms are neither created nor
 All digits of a measured quantity, including destroyed in chemical reactions
the uncertain ones, are called significant 4) Atoms of more than one element combine
figures. to form compounds; a given compound
always has the same relative number and
1. All nonzero digits are significant. kind of atoms
2. Zeroes between nonzero digits are
significant. Discovery of Subatomic Particles
3. Zeroes at the beginning of a number are
never significant.  In Dalton’s view, the atom was the smallest
4. Zeroes at the end of a number are particle possible. Many discoveries led to
significant if it contains a decimal point. the fact that the atom itself was made up of
smaller particles.
– Electrons and cathode rays
Dimensional Analysis – Radioactivity
– Nucleus, protons, and neutrons
 Dimensional analysis is used to change
units. The Electron (Cathode Rays)

Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Atomic Theory of Matter

• Some Greek philosophers like Democritus believed

that there was a smallest particle— “atomos”
(uncuttable)—that made up all of nature.

• Experiments in the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries led to an organized atomic theory by John
Dalton in the early 1800s:  Streams of negatively charged particles
were found to emanate from cathode tubes,
– The law of constant composition causing fluorescence.
 J. J. Thomson is credited with their
 Compounds have a definite composition. discovery (1897).
That means that the relative number of  Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio
atoms of each element in the compound is of the electron to be 1.76  108
the same in any sample. coulombs/gram (C/g).
 This law was discovered by Joseph Proust.

– The law of conservation of mass Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment (Electrons)

 The total mass of substances present at the  Once the charge/mass ratio of the electron
end of a chemical process is the same as was known, determination of either the
the mass of substances present before the charge or the mass of an electron would
process took place. yield the other.
 This law was discovered by Antoine  Robert Millikan determined the charge on
Lavoisier. the electron in 1909

– The law of multiple proportions Radioactivity

  Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission  A mass scale on the atomic level is used,
of high-energy radiation by an atom. where an atomic mass unit (amu) is the
 It was first observed by Henri Becquerel. base unit. – 1 amu = 1.66054 × 10–24 g
 Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.
 Its discovery showed that the atom had
more subatomic particles and energy Atomic Weight Measurement
associated with it
 Atomic and molecular weight can be
 Three types of radiation were discovered by
measured using a mass spectrometer
Ernest Rutherford:
– α particles (positively charged) Periodic Table
– β particles (negatively charged, like
electrons) – γ rays (uncharged)  The periodic table is a systematic
organization of the elements.
The Atom, circa 1900
 Elements are arranged in order of atomic
 The prevailing theory was that of the “plum number
pudding” model, put forward by J. J.  The vertical columns are called the groups
Thomson.  The horizontal rows are called the periods
 It featured a positive sphere of matter with
negative electrons embedded in it

The Discovery of the Nucleus

 Ernest Rutherford shot α particles at a thin

sheet of gold foil and observed the pattern
of scatter of the particles.
 Since some particles were deflected at
large angles, Thomson’s model could not
be correct. This led to the nuclear view of
the atom

Atomic Number

 Atomic Number: the number of protons in

the nucleus of an atom.
 Since atoms have no overall charge, the
number of protons equals the number of
electrons in an atom

(Charged Oxidation)
8
4
(number of atoms) Metals

Metals are on the left side of the periodic

 Elements are represented by a one or two table.
letter symbol, for which the first letter is  Some properties of metals include
always capitalized. C is the symbol for – Shiny luster
carbon. – Conducting heat and electricity
 All atoms of the same element have the – Solids (except mercury)
same number of protons, which is called
the atomic number. It is written as a Nonmetals
subscript BEFORE the symbol. 6 is the
atomic number for carbon.  Nonmetals are on the right side of the
 The mass number is the total number of periodic table (they include H).
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an  They can be solid (like carbon), liquid (like
atom. It is written as a superscript BEFORE bromine), or gas (like neon) at room
the symbol. temperature.

Isotopes Metalloids

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element  Metalloids are the elements on the steplike
with different masses. line (except Al, Po and At)
 Isotopes have different numbers of  Their properties are sometimes like metals
neutrons, but the same number of protons. and sometimes like nonmetals

Atomic Mass Unit Chemical Formulas

 Atoms have extremely small masses.  Molecular compounds are composed of

 The heaviest known atoms have a mass of molecules and almost always contain only
approximately 4 × 10–22 g. nonmetals.
Diatomic Molecules Chemical nomenclature

 These seven elements occur naturally as  The system of naming compounds is called
molecules containing two atoms: chemical nomenclature.
– Hydrogen – Nitrogen – Oxygen – Fluorine  We will learn how to name:
– Chlorine – Bromine – Iodine 1) Ionic compounds
2) Acids
Types of Formulas 3) Binary Molecular Compounds
4) Simple Organic Compounds
 Empirical formulas give the lowest whole- – Alkanes – Alcohols
number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound. Inorganic Nomenclature
 Molecular formulas give the exact number
of atoms of each element in a compound.  Write the name of the cation. If the cation
 Structural formulas show the order in which can have more than one possible charge,
atoms are attached. They do NOT depict write the charge as a Roman numeral in
the three-dimensional shape of molecules. parentheses. If it is a polyatomic cation, it
 Perspective drawings, ball-and-stick will end in -ium.
models, and space-filling models show the  If the anion is an element, change its
three-dimensional order of the atoms in a ending to -ide; if the anion is a polyatomic
compound. ion, simply write the name of the polyatomic
ion.

Patterns of Oxyanion Nomenclature

 When there are two oxyanions involving the

same element
Ions – the one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
– the one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
 When an atom of a group of atoms loses or  NO2 − :
gains electrons, it becomes an ion. nitrite; NO3
 Cations are formed when at least one − : nitrate
electron is lost. Monatomic cations are  SO3 2− :
formed by metals. sulfite; SO4
 Anions are formed when at least one 2− : sulfate
electron is gained. Monatomic anions are
formed by nonmetals, except the noble
gases

Polyatomic Ions

 Sometimes a group of atoms will gain or

lose electrons. These are polyatomic ions.  Central atoms on the second row have a
 A polyatomic cation: – Ammonium ≡ NH4 + bond to, at most, three oxygens; those on
 A polyatomic anion: – Sulfate ≡ SO4 2– the third row take up to four.
 Charges increase as you go from right to
Ionic Compounds left.

 Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are

generally formed between metals and
nonmetals.
 Electrons are transferred from the metal to
the nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions
attract each other. Only empirical formulas  The one with the second fewest oxygens
are written. ends in -ite: ClO2 – is chlorite.
Writing Formulas  The one with the second most oxygens
ends in -ate: ClO3 – is chlorate.
 The one with the fewest oxygens has the
prefix hypoand ends in -ite: ClO– is
hypochlorite.
 The one with the most oxygens has the
 Because compounds are electrically prefix per- and ends in -ate: ClO4 – is
neutral, one can determine the formula of a perchlorate.
compound this way:
– The charge on the cation becomes the Acid Nomenclature
subscript on the anion.
– The charge on the anion becomes the
subscript on the cation.
– If these subscripts are not in the lowest
whole-number ratio, divide them by the
greatest common factor.
  Area of study that examines the quantities
of substances consumed and produced in
chemical reactions
 Based on the Law of Conservation of Mass
(Antoine Lavoisier, 1789)

Chemical equations
Nomenclature of Binary Molecular Compounds
 Chemical equations are how chemists
represent chemical reactions on paper.
 The name of the element farther to the left
in the periodic table (closer to the metals) or  Arrows separate the starting materials (on
lower in the same group is usually written the left), called reactants, from the ending
first. materials (on the right), called products.
 A prefix Other Symbols in Chemical equations
is used
to  The states of matter for the reactants and
denote products are often written in parentheses to
the the right of each formula or symbol.
number (g) = gas;
of (l) = liquid;
atoms (s) = solid;
of each (aq) = dissolve in aqueous (water) solution
Δ = it means heat is needed for the reaction
to take place

Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity

 Types of reactions, which can be predicted

at this point
1. Combination reactions
element in the compound (mono- is not -two or more substances react to
used on the first element listed, however) form one product.


2. Decomposition reactions
 The ending on the second element is -two or more substances react to
changed to -ide. form one product.
– CO2 : carbon dioxide
– CCl4 : carbon tetrachloride
 If the prefix ends with a or o and the name
of the element begins with a vowel, the two
successive vowels are often elided into
one.
– N2O5 : dinitrogen pentoxide
– CO: carbon monoxide
3. Combustion reactions
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds: Alcohols -are rapid reactions that produce
a flame.
 When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced -most often involve oxygen in the
with something else (a functional group, like air as a reactant.
–OH in the compounds above), the name is
derived from the name of the alkane. Formula Weight (FW)
 The ending denotes the type of compound.
– An alcohol ends in -ol.  the sum of the atomic weights for the atoms
 When two or more molecules have the in a chemical formula.
same chemical formula, but different  This is the quantitative significance of a
structures, they are called isomers. formula.

Chapter 3
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry
Molecular Weight (MW)
  If the substance is a molecule, the formula
weight is also called its molecular weight.
 A molecular weight is the sum of the atomic
weights of the atoms in a molecule.

Percent Composition

 One can find the percentage of the mass of

a compound that comes from each of the
elements in the compound by using this
equation:

Determining Empirical Formulas

 Remember, the number of atoms in a

molecular formula is a multiple of the
number of atoms in an empirical formula.
 If we find the empirical formula and know a
molar mass (molecular weight) for the
compound, we can find the molecular
formula.
Avogadro’s Number

Stoichiometric Calculations

 The new calculation is how to compare two

different materials, using the mole ratio
Molar Mass from the balanced equation.
 The mole ratio comes from the coefficients
 A molar mass is the mass of 1 mol of a
in the balanced equation
substance (i.e., g/mol).
 The molar mass of an element is the atomic
weight for the element from the periodic
table. If it is diatomic, it is twice that atomic
weight.
 The formula weight (in amu) will be the
same number as the molar mass (in g/mol)

Converting Amounts

Determining Empirical Formulas

Heat and Stoichiometry

  Stoichiometric Calculations  A periodic table is a tabular arrangement of
 However, in Chapter 5 we will see how the elements in order of increasing atomic
amounts of heat are related to a balanced number such that elements having similar
equation. chemical properties are positioned in
 Those amounts depend on stoichiometry as vertical columns
well
Johannes Dobereiner (1780-1849)
Limiting Reactants
 Noticed that many of the known elements
 The limiting reactant is the reactant present could be grouped in triads - A set of three
in the smallest stoichiometric amount elements that have similar properties
 The limiting reactant is used in all - Triads:
stoichiometry calculations to determine • chlorine, bromine, and iodine;
amounts of products that are produced and • copper, silver, and gold
amounts of any other reactant(s) that are • sulfur, selenium, and tellurium
used in a reaction. • aluminum, gallium, and indium

Theoretical yield John Newlands (1838-1898)

 The theoretical yield is the maximum  In 1863 English chemist John Newlands
amount of product that can be made. – In divided the then discovered 56 elements
other words, it is the amount of product into 11 groups, based on characteristics.
possible as calculated through the  Newlands noticed that elemental properties
stoichiometry problem. repeated every seventh (or multiple of
 This is different from the actual yield, which seven) element, as musical notes repeat
is the amount one actually produces and every eighth note.
measures
Julius Lothar Meyer (1830-1895)
Percent Yield
 Meyer aligned the elements in his table
 One finds the percent yield by comparing according to periodic variations in simple
the amount actually obtained (actual yield) atomic properties, such as “atomic volume”
to the amount it was possible to make
(theoretical yield):

Dimitri Mendeleev (1830-1895)

Chapter 4
Introduction: Matter, Energy and Measurement
 Father of the first periodic table
 First published his periodic table in 1869
History of the Periodic Table of Elements  Mendeleev did not assume that all the
elements had been discovered (actually,
 The discovery of chemical elements has only about twothirds of the naturally
been ongoing since ancient times. occurring elements were known at the time)
 Brief timeline:  deliberately left blanks in his table at atomic
masses 44, 68, 72, and 100
 Before 1800 (36 elements): discoveries • scandium, gallium, germanium, and
during and before the Age of technetium.
Enlightenment.  Discovery of two previously unknown
 1800-1849 (+22 elements): impulse from elements whose properties closely
Scientific Revolution and Atomic theory and corresponded with his predictions
Industrial Revolution. • Two of the blanks Mendeleev had left in
 1850-1899 (+23 elements): the age of his original table were below aluminum and
Classifying Elements received an impulse silicon • Eka-aluminum and eka-silicon
from the Spectrum analysis. • gallium and germanium
 1900-1949 (+13 elements): impulse from  Eka (Beyond this beyond that)
the old quantum theory, the Refinements to
the periodic table, and quantum mechanics. H. G. J. Moseley (1887–1915)
 1950-1999 (+15 elements): Manhattan
Project and Particle physics issues, for  Discovered that the underlying foundation
atomic numbers 97 and above. of the order of the elements was by the
atomic number, not the atomic mass
Periodic Law & Periodic Table  Father of the modern periodic table

 The periodic law states that when elements Metals vs Nonmetals

are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number, elements with similar chemical
properties occur at periodic (regularly
recurring) intervals.
 • From top to bottom down a group,
electronegativity decreases.
• As for the transition metals, although they
have electronegativity values, there is little
Periodic Trends variance among them across the period
and up and down a group
 Periodic trends are specific patterns that
are present in the periodic table that
illustrate different aspects of a certain
element, including its size and its electronic
properties.
 Major periodic trends include:
electronegativity, ionization energy, electron
affinity, atomic radius, melting point, and
metallic character
Electron affinity
Atomic size (atomic radii)
 the ability of an atom to accept an electron
 The atomic radius is one-half the distance  Unlike electronegativity, electron affinity is
between the nuclei of two atoms (just like a quantitative measurement of the energy
radius is half the diameter of a circle) change that occurs when an electron is
 Atomic radius decreases from left to right added to a neutral gas atom.
within a period. This is caused by the
increase in the number of protons and
electrons across a period. One proton has a
greater effect than one electron; thus,  Trend:
electrons are pulled towards the nucleus, • Electron affinity increases from left to right
resulting in a smaller radius. within a period. This is caused by the
 Atomic radius increases from top to bottom decrease in atomic radius.
within a group. This is caused by electron • Electron affinity decreases from top to
shielding bottom within a group. This is caused by
the increase in atomic radius

Ionization energy Metallic Character

 The ease with which electrons can be  how readily an atom can lose an electron
removed from an atom or ion  Metallic characteristics decrease from left to
 the minimum energy required to remove an right across a period. This is caused by the
electron from the ground state of the decrease in radius (caused by Zeff, as
isolated gas- eous atom or ion stated above) of the atom that allows the
 Trend: outer electrons to ionize more readily.
• generally increases as we move left to  Metallic characteristics increase down a
right across a period. group. Electron shielding causes the atomic
• generally decreases as we move down radius to increase thus the outer electrons
any column in the periodic table ionizes more readily than electrons in
smaller atoms.
 Metallic character relates to the ability to
lose electrons, and nonmetallic character
relates to the ability to gain electrons

Electronegativity

 an atom's ability to attract and bind with

Chapter 5
electrons
Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding
 measures an atom's tendency to attract and
form bonds with electrons
Chemical Bond
 Trend:
• From left to right across a period of
 A permanent link between an atom or ions.
elements, electronegativity increases.
  A chemical bond is a lasting attraction  Combination Reactions-
between atoms or ions that enables the -Two or more substances react to form one
formation of molecules, crystals, and other product • If
structures. • Metal + nonmetal = ionic solid
 The attractive force which holds various • Nonmetal + nonmetal = covalent
constituents (atoms, ions, etc.) together and compounds
stabilises them

Types of Chemical Bond

 Ionic bonds
• Attractions between oppositely charged  Decomposition Reactions
ions - A single substance undergoes a reaction
• Direct transfer of electrons to produce two or more products
 Covalent bonds
• Sharing of electrons
 Metallic bonds
• Bonds between metals

Octet Rule
 Combustion Reactions
 Atoms often gain, lose, or share electrons - Rapid reactions that produce a flame
to achieve the same number of electrons to - Most involve molecular oxygen from air as
achieve the same number of electrons as a reactant
the noble gas closest to them in the
periodic table. Reactions based on Energy
 All noble gases (except for He) has a
valence of 8  Endothermic reaction - absorbs heat/
energy
Three important generalizations  Exothermic reaction - releases heat/ energy

 Representative elements in the same group Types of reactions based on Electronegativity

of the periodic table have the same number Differences
of valence electrons.
 The number of valence electrons for  >1.7 - ionic
representative elements is the same as the  0.5-1.7 - polar covalent
Roman numeral periodic-table group  <0.5 – nonpolar covalent
number.
 The maximum number of valence electrons Other Reactions
for any element is eight
 Single displacement (A + BC → AC +B)
Lewis Symbol & Structures  Double displacement (AB + CD → AD +
CB)
 Valence electrons - electrons involved in  Oxidation - addition of oxygen; removal of
chemical bonding; electrons in the hydrogen
outermost shell  Reduction - addition of hydrogen; removal
 Lewis electron-dot symbol - a simple way of of oxygen
showing valence electrons  Neutralization - reaction between acid and
base to yield salt and water

Chapter 6
The Electronic Structure of Atoms

Internal Structure of an Atom

 Subatomic particles - building block of

atoms • Electron - possesses a negative
electrical charge
• Proton - possesses a positive charge
• Neutron - no charge associated with it

Charge neutrality of an atom

 An atom as a whole is electrically neutral;

Changes in Matter
that is, it has no net electrical charge.
 Physical change - change in appearance  For this to be the case, the same number of
positive and negative charges must be
 Chemical change - change in composition
present in the atom
 Nuclear change - change in the nucleus
Atomic Number, Mass Number, Atomic Mass
Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity
  An atomic number (Z) is the number of  This quantum number defines the shape of
protons in the nucleus of an atom. the orbital.
 A mass number (A) is the sum of the  The value of l for a particular orbital is
number of protons and the number of generally designted by the letters s, p, d, f
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. corresponding to l values of 0, 1, 2, 3
 Atomic Mass is the average mass of all
isotopes of an element weighted according
to natural abundance is the atomic mass.

Isotopes

 Isotopes are atoms of an element that have

the same number of protons and the same
number of electrons but different numbers
of neutrons.

Quantum Mechanics & Atomic Orbitals

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
 In 1926, the Austrian physicist Erwin
Schrödinger (1887–1961) proposed an  Can have integral values between -l and l,
equation, now known as Schrödinger’s including zero
wave equation, that incorporates both the  This quantum numbers describes the
wave-like and particle-like behaviors of the orientation of the orbital in space
electron
 Solving Schrödinger’s equation for the
hydrogen atom leads to a series of
mathematical functions called wave
functions that describe the electron in the
atom. Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

Orbitals & Quantum Numbers  Electrons are thought of as spinning on

their own axes
 An atomic orbital is a mathematical term in  A spinning charge generates a magnetic
atomic theory and quantum mechanics that field
describes the position and wavelike  This motion is what causes electrons to
behavior of an electron in an atom behave like magnets
 Each orbital has a characteristic shape and
energy. Restrictions in the orbitals
 The quantum-mechanical model does not
refer to orbits because the motion of the  The shell with principal quantum number n
electron in an atom cannot be precisely consists of exactly n subshells.
determined (Heisenberg’s uncertainty  Each subshell consists of a specific number
principle). of orbitals.
 The total number of orbitals in a shell is n2,
Principal Quantum Number (n) where n is the prinicpal quantum number of
the shell
 can have positive integral values 1, 2, 3, . . .
. Pauli's Exclusion Principle
 As n increases, the orbital becomes larger,
and the electron spends more time farther  No two electrons in an atom can have the
from the nucleus same four quantum numbers
 An increase in n also means that the  If two electrons in an atom should have the
electron has a higher energy and is same n,l, and ml values, then they must
therefore less tightly bound to the nucleius. have different ms.
 The collection of orbitals with the same  Only two electrons must occupy the same
value of n is called an electron shell. All the atomic orbital and these electrons must
orbitals that have n = 3, for example, are have opposite spins
said to be in the third shell
Hund's Rule of maximum multiplicity

 The most stable arrangement of electrons

in a subshell is the one with the greatest
number of parallel spins.

Angular Momentum Quantum Number (I)

 Can have integral values from 0 to (n-1) for Afbau's Building-up Principle
each value of n
  As protons are added one by one to the
nucleus to build up the elements, electrons
are similarly added to the atomic orbitals

Electron configuration

 The way electrons are distributed among

the various orbitals of an atom
 The most stable electron configuration is
that in which the electrons are in the lowest
possible energy states.