1

R Data Structures
1. R Vectors:
Vectors:

 A vector is simply a list of items that are of the same type.

 To combine the list of items to a vector, use the c() function and separate the
items by a comma.
 In the example below, we create a vector variable called fruits, that combine
strings:
 Example

# Vector of strings
fruits <- c("banana", "apple", "orange")

# Print fruits
fruits

 In this example, we create a vector that combines numerical values:

 Example

# Vector of numerical values

numbers <- c(1, 2, 3)

# Print numbers
numbers

 To create a vector with numerical values in a sequence, use the : operator:

 Example

# Vector with numerical values in a sequence

numbers <- 1:10

numbers

 You can also create numerical values with decimals in a sequence, but note
that if the last element does not belong to the sequence, it is not used:
 Example
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# Vector with numerical decimals in a sequence

numbers1 <- 1.5:6.5
numbers1

# Vector with numerical decimals in a sequence where the last element is not
used
numbers2 <- 1.5:6.3
numbers2

 In the example below, we create a vector of logical values:

 Example

# Vector of logical values

log_values <- c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, FALSE)

log_values

***************************************************************
Vector Length

 To find out how many items a vector has, use the length() function:
 Example

fruits <- c("banana", "apple", "orange")

length(fruits)
******************************************************************
Sort a Vector

 To sort items in a vector alphabetically or numerically, use

the sort() function:
 Example

fruits <- c("banana", "apple", "orange", "mango", "lemon")

numbers <- c(13, 3, 5, 7, 20, 2)
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sort(fruits) # Sort a string

sort(numbers) # Sort numbers
******************************************************************
Access Vectors

 You can access the vector items by referring to its index number inside
brackets []. The first item has index 1, the second item has index 2, and so
on:
 Example

fruits <- c("banana", "apple", "orange")

# Access the first item (banana)

fruits[1]

 You can also access multiple elements by referring to different index

positions with the c() function:
 Example

fruits <- c("banana", "apple", "orange", "mango", "lemon")

# Access the first and third item (banana and orange)

fruits[c(1, 3)]

 You can also use negative index numbers to access all items except the ones
specified:
 Example

fruits <- c("banana", "apple", "orange", "mango", "lemon")

# Access all items except for the first item

fruits[c(-1)]
******************************************************************
Change an Item

 To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

 Example
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fruits <- c("banana", "apple", "orange", "mango", "lemon")

# Change "banana" to "pear"

fruits[1] <- "pear"

# Print fruits
fruits
******************************************************************
Repeat Vectors

 To repeat vectors, use the rep() function:

 Example

Repeat each value:

repeat_each <- rep(c(1,2,3), each = 3)

repeat_each

 Example

Repeat the sequence of the vector:

repeat_times <- rep(c(1,2,3), times = 3)

repeat_times

 Example
 Repeat each value independently:

repeat_indepent <- rep(c(1,2,3), times = c(5,2,1))

repeat_indepent
******************************************************************
Generating Sequenced Vectors

 One of the examples on top, showed you how to create a vector with
numerical values in a sequence with the : operator:
 Example
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numbers <- 1:10

numbers

 To make bigger or smaller steps in a sequence, use the seq() function:

 Example

numbers <- seq(from = 0, to = 100, by = 20)

numbers

Note: The seq() function has three parameters: from is where the sequence
starts, to is where the sequence stops, and by is the interval of the sequence.

******************************************************************

2. R Lists
Lists:

 A list in R can contain many different data types inside it. A list is a
collection of data which is ordered and changeable.

 To create a list, use the list() function:

 Example

# List of strings
thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

# Print the list

thislist
******************************************************************
Access Lists

 You can access the list items by referring to its index number, inside
brackets. The first item has index 1, the second item has index 2, and so on:
 Example
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thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

thislist[1]
******************************************************************
Change Item Value

 To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

 Example

thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

thislist[1] <- "blackcurrant"

# Print the updated list

thislist
******************************************************************
List Length

 To find out how many items a list has, use the length() function:
 Example

thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

length(thislist)
******************************************************************
Check if Item Exists

 To find out if a specified item is present in a list, use the %in% operator:
 Example

Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

"apple" %in% thislist

******************************************************************
Add List Items
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 To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() function:
 Example

Add "orange" to the list:

thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

append(thislist, "orange")

 To add an item to the right of a specified index, add "after=index number" in

the append() function:
 Example

Add "orange" to the list after "banana" (index 2):

thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

append(thislist, "orange", after = 2)

******************************************************************
Remove List Items

 You can also remove list items. The following example creates a new,
updated list without an "apple" item:
 Example

Remove "apple" from the list:

thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

newlist <- thislist[-1]

# Print the new list

newlist
******************************************************************
Range of Indexes

 You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range, by using the : operator:
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 Example

Return the second, third, fourth and fifth item:

thislist <-
list("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

(thislist)[2:5]

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5
(included).

Remember that the first item has index 1.

******************************************************************
Loop Through a List

 You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
 Example

Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for (x in thislist) {
print(x)
}
******************************************************************
Join Two Lists

 There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in R.

 The most common way is to use the c() function, which combines two
elements together:
 Example

list1 <- list("a", "b", "c")

list2 <- list(1,2,3)
list3 <- c(list1,list2)
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list3
******************************************************************
3. R Matrices

Matrices:

 A matrix is a two dimensional data set with columns and rows.

 A column is a vertical representation of data, while a row is a horizontal
representation of data.
 A matrix can be created with the matrix() function. Specify
the nrow and ncol parameters to get the amount of rows and columns:
 Example

# Create a matrix
thismatrix <- matrix(c(1,2,3,4,5,6), nrow = 3, ncol = 2)

# Print the matrix

thismatrix

Note: Remember the c() function is used to concatenate items together.

You can also create a matrix with strings:

 Example

thismatrix <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"), nrow = 2,

ncol = 2)

thismatrix
******************************************************************
Access Matrix Items

 You can access the items by using [ ] brackets. The first number "1" in the
bracket specifies the row-position, while the second number "2" specifies the
column-position:
 Example
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thismatrix <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"), nrow = 2,

ncol = 2)

thismatrix[1, 2]

 The whole row can be accessed if you specify a comma after the number in
the bracket:
 Example

thismatrix <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"), nrow = 2,

ncol = 2)

thismatrix[2,]

 The whole column can be accessed if you specify a comma before the
number in the bracket:
 Example

thismatrix <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"), nrow = 2,

ncol = 2)

thismatrix[,2]
******************************************************************
Access More Than One Row

 More than one row can be accessed if you use the c() function:
 Example

thismatrix <-
matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange","grape", "pineapple", "pear",
"melon", "fig"), nrow = 3, ncol = 3)

thismatrix[c(1,2),]
******************************************************************
Access More Than One Column
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 More than one column can be accessed if you use the c() function:
 Example

thismatrix <-
matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange","grape", "pineapple", "pear",
"melon", "fig"), nrow = 3, ncol = 3)

thismatrix[, c(1,2)]
******************************************************************
Add Rows and Columns

 Use the cbind() function to add additional columns in a Matrix:

 Example

thismatrix <-
matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange","grape", "pineapple", "pear",
"melon", "fig"), nrow = 3, ncol = 3)

newmatrix <- cbind(thismatrix, c("strawberry", "blueberry", "raspberry"))

# Print the new matrix

newmatrix

Note: The cells in the new column must be of the same length as the existing
matrix.

 Use the rbind() function to add additional rows in a Matrix:

 Example

thismatrix <-
matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange","grape", "pineapple", "pear",
"melon", "fig"), nrow = 3, ncol = 3)

newmatrix <- rbind(thismatrix, c("strawberry", "blueberry", "raspberry"))

# Print the new matrix

newmatrix
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Note: The cells in the new row must be of the same length as the existing matrix.

******************************************************************
Remove Rows and Columns

 Use the c() function to remove rows and columns in a Matrix:

 Example
thismatrix <-
matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "mango", "pineapple"), nro
w = 3, ncol =2)

#Remove the first row and the first column

thismatrix <- thismatrix[-c(1), -c(1)]
thismatrix
******************************************************************
Check if an Item Exists

 To find out if a specified item is present in a matrix, use the %in% operator:
 Example

Check if "apple" is present in the matrix:

thismatrix <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"), nrow = 2,

ncol = 2)

"apple" %in% thismatrix

******************************************************************
Number of Rows and Columns

 Use the dim() function to find the number of rows and columns in a Matrix:
 Example

thismatrix <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"), nrow = 2,

ncol = 2)

dim(thismatrix)
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******************************************************************
Matrix Length

 Use the length() function to find the dimension of a Matrix:

 Example

thismatrix <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"), nrow = 2,

ncol = 2)

length(thismatrix)

Total cells in the matrix is the number of rows multiplied by number of

columns.

In the example above: Dimension = 2*2 = 4.

******************************************************************
Loop Through a Matrix

You can loop through a Matrix using a for loop. The loop will start at the first row,
moving right:

 Example

Loop through the matrix items and print them:

thismatrix <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange"), nrow = 2,

ncol = 2)

for (rows in 1:nrow(thismatrix)) {

for (columns in 1:ncol(thismatrix)) {
print(thismatrix[rows, columns])
}
}
******************************************************************
Combine two Matrices

 Again, you can use the rbind() or cbind() function to combine two or more
matrices together:
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 Example

# Combine matrices
Matrix1 <- matrix(c("apple", "banana", "cherry", "grape"), nrow = 2, ncol
= 2)
Matrix2 <- matrix(c("orange", "mango", "pineapple", "watermelon"), nrow
= 2, ncol = 2)

# Adding it as a rows
Matrix_Combined <- rbind(Matrix1, Matrix2)
Matrix_Combined

# Adding it as a columns
Matrix_Combined <- cbind(Matrix1, Matrix2)
Matrix_Combined
******************************************************************
4. R Arrays
Arrays

 Compared to matrices, arrays can have more than two dimensions.

 We can use the array() function to create an array, and the dim parameter to
specify the dimensions:
 Example

# An array with one dimension with values ranging from 1 to 24

thisarray <- c(1:24)
thisarray

# An array with more than one dimension

multiarray <- array(thisarray, dim = c(4, 3, 2))
multiarray
Example Explained

In the example above we create an array with the values 1 to 24.

How does dim=c(4,3,2) work?

The first and second number in the bracket specifies the amount of rows and
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columns.
The last number in the bracket specifies how many dimensions we want.

Note: Arrays can only have one data type.

******************************************************************
Access Array Items

 You can access the array elements by referring to the index position. You
can use the [] brackets to access the desired elements from an array:
 Example

thisarray <- c(1:24)

multiarray <- array(thisarray, dim = c(4, 3, 2))

multiarray[2, 3, 2]

The syntax is as follow: array[row position, column position, matrix level]

 You can also access the whole row or column from a matrix in an array, by
using the c() function:
 Example

thisarray <- c(1:24)

# Access all the items from the first row from matrix one
multiarray <- array(thisarray, dim = c(4, 3, 2))
multiarray[c(1),,1]

# Access all the items from the first column from matrix one
multiarray <- array(thisarray, dim = c(4, 3, 2))
multiarray[,c(1),1]

A comma (,) before c() means that we want to access the column.

A comma (,) after c() means that we want to access the row.
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******************************************************************
Check if an Item Exists

 To find out if a specified item is present in an array, use the %in% operator:
 Example

Check if the value "2" is present in the array:

thisarray <- c(1:24)

multiarray <- array(thisarray, dim = c(4, 3, 2))

2 %in% multiarray
******************************************************************
Amount of Rows and Columns

 Use the dim() function to find the amount of rows and columns in an array:
 Example

thisarray <- c(1:24)

multiarray <- array(thisarray, dim = c(4, 3, 2))

dim(multiarray)
******************************************************************
Array Length

 Use the length() function to find the dimension of an array:

 Example

thisarray <- c(1:24)

multiarray <- array(thisarray, dim = c(4, 3, 2))

length(multiarray)
******************************************************************
Loop Through an Array

 You can loop through the array items by using a for loop:
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 Example

thisarray <- c(1:24)

multiarray <- array(thisarray, dim = c(4, 3, 2))

for(x in multiarray){
print(x)
}
******************************************************************
5. R Data Frames
Data Frames

 Data Frames are data displayed in a format as a table.

 Data Frames can have different types of data inside it. While the first
column can be character, the second and third can be numeric or logical.
However, each column should have the same type of data.
 Use the data.frame() function to create a data frame:
 Example

# Create a data frame

Data_Frame <- data.frame (
Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

# Print the data frame

Data_Frame
******************************************************************
Summarize the Data

 Use the summary() function to summarize the data from a Data Frame:
 Example

Data_Frame <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
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Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),

Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

Data_Frame

summary(Data_Frame)

You will learn more about the summary() function in the statistical part of
the R tutorial.

******************************************************************
Access Items

 We can use single brackets [ ], double brackets [[ ]] or $ to access columns

from a data frame:
 Example

Data_Frame <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

Data_Frame[1]

Data_Frame[["Training"]]

Data_Frame$Training
******************************************************************
Add Rows

 Use the rbind() function to add new rows in a Data Frame:

 Example

Data_Frame <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
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Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),

Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

# Add a new row

New_row_DF <- rbind(Data_Frame, c("Strength", 110, 110))

# Print the new row

New_row_DF
******************************************************************
Add Columns

 Use the cbind() function to add new columns in a Data Frame:

 Example

Data_Frame <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

# Add a new column

New_col_DF <- cbind(Data_Frame, Steps = c(1000, 6000, 2000))

# Print the new column

New_col_DF
******************************************************************
Remove Rows and Columns

 Use the c() function to remove rows and columns in a Data Frame:
 Example

Data_Frame <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
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# Remove the first row and column

Data_Frame_New <- Data_Frame[-c(1), -c(1)]

# Print the new data frame

Data_Frame_New
******************************************************************
Amount of Rows and Columns

 Use the dim() function to find the amount of rows and columns in a Data
Frame:
 Example

Data_Frame <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

dim(Data_Frame)

 You can also use the ncol() function to find the number of columns
and nrow() to find the number of rows:
 Example

Data_Frame <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

ncol(Data_Frame)
nrow(Data_Frame)
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******************************************************************
Data Frame Length

 Use the length() function to find the number of columns in a Data Frame
(similar to ncol()):
 Example

Data_Frame <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

length(Data_Frame)
******************************************************************
Combining Data Frames

 Use the rbind() function to combine two or more data frames in R vertically:
 Example

Data_Frame1 <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

Data_Frame2 <- data.frame (

Training = c("Stamina", "Stamina", "Strength"),
Pulse = c(140, 150, 160),
Duration = c(30, 30, 20)
)

New_Data_Frame <- rbind(Data_Frame1, Data_Frame2)

New_Data_Frame

 And use the cbind() function to combine two or more data frames in R
horizontally:
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 Example

Data_Frame3 <- data.frame (

Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

Data_Frame4 <- data.frame (

Steps = c(3000, 6000, 2000),
Calories = c(300, 400, 300)
)

New_Data_Frame1 <- cbind(Data_Frame3, Data_Frame4)

New_Data_Frame1
******************************************************************
6. R Factors
Factors

 Factors are used to categorize data. Examples of factors are:

 Demography: Male/Female
 Music: Rock, Pop, Classic, Jazz
 Training: Strength, Stamina

 To create a factor, use the factor() function and add a vector as argument:
 Example

# Create a factor
music_genre <-
factor(c("Jazz", "Rock", "Classic", "Classic", "Pop", "Jazz", "Rock", "Jazz")
)
music_genre

 You can see from the example above that that the factor has four levels
(categories): Classic, Jazz, Pop and Rock.
 To only print the levels, use the levels() function:
 Example
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music_genre <-
factor(c("Jazz", "Rock", "Classic", "Classic", "Pop", "Jazz", "Rock", "Jazz")
)

levels(music_genre)

 You can also set the levels, by adding the levels argument inside
the factor() function:
 Example

music_genre <-
factor(c("Jazz", "Rock", "Classic", "Classic", "Pop", "Jazz", "Rock", "Jazz"),
levels = c("Classic", "Jazz", "Pop", "Rock", "Other"))

levels(music_genre)

Result:

[1] "Classic" "Jazz" "Pop" "Rock" "Other"

******************************************************************
Factor Length

 Use the length() function to find out how many items there are in the factor:
 Example

music_genre <-
factor(c("Jazz", "Rock", "Classic", "Classic", "Pop", "Jazz", "Rock", "Jazz")
)

length(music_genre)
******************************************************************
Access Factors

 To access the items in a factor, refer to the index number, using [] brackets:
 Example

Access the third item:

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music_genre <-
factor(c("Jazz", "Rock", "Classic", "Classic", "Pop", "Jazz", "Rock", "Jazz")
)
music_genre[3]
******************************************************************
Change Item Value

 To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

 Example

Change the value of the third item:

music_genre <-
factor(c("Jazz", "Rock", "Classic", "Classic", "Pop", "Jazz", "Rock", "Jazz")
)

music_genre[3] <- "Pop"

music_genre[3]

Note that you cannot change the value of a specific item if it is not already
specified in the factor. The following example will produce an error:

 Example

Trying to change the value of the third item ("Classic") to an item that does
not exist/not predefined ("Opera"):

music_genre <-
factor(c("Jazz", "Rock", "Classic", "Classic", "Pop", "Jazz", "Rock", "Jazz")
)

music_genre[3] <- "Opera"

music_genre[3]

Result:

Warning message:
In `[<-.factor`(`*tmp*`, 3, value = "Opera") :
 25

invalid factor level, NA generated

However, if you have already specified it inside the levels argument, it will
work:

 Example

Change the value of the third item:

music_genre <-
factor(c("Jazz", "Rock", "Classic", "Classic", "Pop", "Jazz", "Rock", "Jazz"),
levels = c("Classic", "Jazz", "Pop", "Rock", "Opera"))

music_genre[3] <- "Opera"

music_genre[3]

Result:

[1] Opera
Levels: Classic Jazz Pop Rock Opera
******************************************************************