Topic 2.

Junctions

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 1

Objectives
• By the end of Topic 2, you shall be able to

• Identify the characteristics of different types of at-grade junctions

• Justify the choice of junction types based on given requirements and
constraints
• Perform preliminary design of priority junction, roundabout, and
traffic signal junction
• Analyze the capacity of priority junction, roundabout, and traffic
signal junction using manual calculation and design software

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 2

Topics
• 4 major sections. 6 weeks.

• 1. Introduction: Types of junctions, comparison

• Design of at-grade junctions
• 2. Priority Junction
• 3. Roundabout
• 4. Traffic Signal

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 3

1. Introduction

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 4

Traffic Network

• Network =
• Nodes and links

• Links: roads of different types

• Nodes: various land use/ activity
locations or Junctions

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU

([email protected]) 5
Review: Road Types in Hong Kong
EXPRESSWAYS
(No urban/ rural distinction)

Urban Road Types Rural Road Types

(Kowloon, Hong Kong Island, New Towns) (New Territories
outside of New Towns)
Urban Trunk
Primary Distributor Rural Trunk
District Distributor Rural Roads
Local Distributor Feeder Roads

TPDM Vol 2 Ch 3.2

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 6
 Physical Design
Road Type
Geometric design
Junction type

Traffic Management
Function
Strategy

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 7

Annual Traffic Census
Appendix G CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 8
 For
information

Annual Traffic Census

Appendix H CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 9
 For
information

AADT = Annual Average Daily Traffic

Important input to road/

junction design!

Annual Traffic Census

Appendix C CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 10
Highway Planning and Design
• Planning => Choice of road type
• Traffic Design => Size (how many
lanes)
• based on desired level-of-service
or target v/c ratio
• Physical design
• Geometric design of highway
• horizontal alignment, vertical
alignment, superelevation [covered
in CSE30312]
• Junctions => This chapter
• Pavement => Prof WANG Recall Lecture 1

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 11

Technical References
• Transport Planning and Design Manual, Transport Department, HKSAR Government
• Volume 2, Chapter 4 Junctions
• Volume 4, Road Traffic Signals
• UK Design standards
• TD 42/95, Geometric Design of Major/Minor Priority Junctions
• TD16/07, Geometric Design of Roundabouts TPDM made reference
to these documents,
• TA23/81, Junctions and Accesses : Determination of Size of Roundabouts and Major / Minor
Junctions but these were
superseded by CD123
• CD 123 - Geometric design of at-grade priority and signal-controlled junctions and CD116 lately.
• https://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/dmrb/search/962a81c1-abda-4424-96c9-
fe4c2287308c
• CD 116 - Geometric design of roundabouts
• https://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/dmrb/search/2b5901c6-3477-4826-b780-
cf99003fb5e0

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 12

Junctions

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 13

Junction
• Junctions (or Intersections) : inevitable part of any
street system
• the general area where two or more roads join or cross,
• including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic
movement within it.
• A junction has to be shared by everybody who
wants to use it
Picture 1
Picture 2
Picture 3
• Needs to be designed with great care:
• Safety, efficiency, speed, cost of operation, and
capacity

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 14

Traffic Conflicts
Merging
vehicles enter a traffic stream Which type of conflict is the
most problematic?

Diverging
vehicles leave traffic stream
What does “problematic”
means?

Weaving
vehicles cross paths by first merging and then diverging

Crossing
vehicles cross paths directly

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 15

More pictures about weaving

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 16

Junction control
Control merging and conflicting traffic streams
Want
in safety and with a minimum of delay

How? 3 major approaches

• “Rules of the road”: drivers and operators are

responsible for detecting one another’s presence,
resolving conflicts, and avoiding collisions. e.g. low-
volume roads, vessels on the open sea
• Signs, markings, and traffic signals
• External control system: control of vehicle motion by
external system. e.g. external block signal control
system for rail

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 17

 4-leg intersection
source

Uncontrolled junction: 2 configurations

Note the number of conflict points

And the types of conflicts

Question:
Which is better? How to define “better”?
Two T-intersections
i.e. What would you consider in the choice of source
junction type/ configuration?

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 18

Resolving crossing conflicts
Time sharing

• Assignment of right-of-way to particular movements for particular times.

• E.g. priority junction, signalized intersection

Space sharing

• Convert crossing conflicts into weaving conflicts. E.g. roundabout

Grade separation

• Eliminate the crossing conflict by placing conflicting traffic streams at different

elevations at their point of intersection
• e.g. Interchange
Picture 1
Picture 2
Picture 3
CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 19
 TERMINOLOGY
Approach and Lane
• Approach: A lane or a group of lanes through which traffic enters
intersection North
All types
Eastbound Approach
Eastbound = travelling towards the east
Nearside lane
The lane that is the furthest
XX street
from the road median
Farside lane
The lane that is the closest Westbound Approach
to the road median

Left- turn approach lane

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 20

 TERMINOLOGY
Single and Dual Carriageway
• Single: without central divider; Dual: with central divider

• Central divider (also called Central Reserve)

• Separate traffic flows in opposite direction
• Provide freedom from interference from opposing traffic
• Improve speed and safety
• Single carriageway: lane changing by getting into opposing traffic lanes is possible.

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 21

Types of Junction

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 22

Types of Intersection Control
At grade
Grade-separated
Two or more highways join, each highway radiating from or forming part
of the intersection Highways cross each other at a different grade, with no connection

• Uncontrolled Intersection • Interchange

• Channelization • Various types of interchange

• Priority Junction
• Roundabout
• Traffic Signal

• (increasing order of control exercised at

junctions)
• each approach is referred to as an
intersection leg

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 23

 See and React
1. Uncontrolled Intersection
• No control devices
• Visibility distance
• The operator of a vehicle approaching an intersection must be able to
perceive a hazard in sufficient time to alter the vehicle’s speed, as
necessary, before reaching the intersection.
ISD in
next slide

What kind(s) of design criteria is described in here?

[Safety, efficiency, speed, cost of operation, and capacity]

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 24

 See and React
1. Uncontrolled intersection
• Locate vehicle A (usually on minor road) at
stopping distance (ISDa) from the collision point
• Determine the actual location of vehicle B when
drivers first see each other (by geometry, make
use of location of the obstruction)
• Check whether the actual distance between
vehicle B and the collision point is longer than its
stopping distance (ISDb)
• ISDb > stopping distance? Collision
point

• Stopping distance = distance 2traveled during

𝑣
stopping = 𝑣 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑏 + 2𝑔 𝑓±𝐺 ISD = intersection sight distance

If, the sight triangle between vehicles A and B

v = vehicle speed
tr = reaction time, usu. 2 sec cannot meet the sight-distance criteria
tb = braking time, usu. 1 sec (time to actuate braking) Consider priority junction
f = coefficient of road friction for stopping
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.8m/s2
G = road gradient, use “+” for upward, “-” for downward.
CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 25
2. Channelization
• Separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite
paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate
the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians.

• Can be used alone or supplement other control measures (e.g. priority

junction, roundabout,…)
CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 26
2. Channelization Area of conflict

• Guiding principles:
• Channel lines are easy to follow
• No more than two (vehicle) paths cross at any one point Reverse curve = “S”
• Sudden and sharp reverse curves should be avoided curve = 2 simple curves
in opposite direction
• Areas of vehicle conflict should be reduced as much as possible
• Traffic streams that cross without merging and weaving should intersect at or near
right angles
• Islands should be carefully selected and be as few as possible

• Benefits: improve safety, maximizes convenience, instills drivers’

confidence
CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 27
3. Priority Junction
• Traffic on the major road has continual priority over the traffic on the
minor road.

• Minor road traffic is controlled by

• “stop” or “give way” signs, and
• associated carriageway markings.
• The onus is entirely on the minor road traffic to decide when it is safe
to enter the major road.

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 28

3. Priority Junctions Design and
• Major road is given permanent priority capacity analysis

• Stop Signs
• "Stop" is placed on a minor road at its junction with a major road,
• A vehicle must stop at the transverse lines or if the transverse lines are
not present, the vehicle must still stop at the major road.
• The vehicle should not proceed into the major road in a manner or at a
time that would cause danger to the driver of a vehicle on the major
road or cause that vehicle to change its direction or speed.

• Yield Signs (Give way)

• "Give Way" is placed on minor roads at their junctions with major roads
• The vehicle on the minor road should not enter the major road, in such
a manner or at such a time, as to cause danger to a vehicle on the major
road or cause the driver of such a vehicle to change its speed or
direction.
Road User’s code

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 29

https://goo.gl/maps/EaYBZJxs71Ka5xoC9

Uncontrolled? Uncontrolled?
Channelization? Channelization?
Priority Junction? Priority Junction?

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 30

4. Roundabout
Design and
capacity analysis
• Considered as a form of channelized priority
junction.
• Vehicles enter a one-way carriageway and move
in a clockwise direction around a central island
(or anticlockwise direction, depends on the
Roundabout
country’s driving rules)
• Entering vehicles give priority to those vehicles
already circulating across their entry.
• Variation: signalized roundabout, grade-separated
roundabout
CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 31
5. Traffic Signal Design and
capacity analysis
• The traffic signal is an electrically timed device
• that assigns the right-of-way to one or more traffic
streams so that these traffic streams can pass
through the intersection safely and efficiently.
• Utilize a time-sharing operation.
• Traffic streams are allowed to enter the junction for
a period of time, indicated by an illuminated signal,
and during which period conflicting traffic streams
are halted.

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 32

6. Interchange
• All previous types of junctions are at-
grade intersections

• Interchange resolves traffic conflicts by

grade separation
• Offers increased capacity, less vehicular
delay, fewer accidents and reduced
operating costs.
• High construction costs and usually
increased land intake

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 33

Choice of Junction Types

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 34

Choice of Junction Type
• At-grade: Priority Junction, Roundabout, Signal Junction
• Grade Separated Interchange
• Will not be discussed extensively

• Considerations:
• Capacity, Delay, Safety, Economic Considerations, Pedestrians
• Environmental and topographical considerations
• Consistency with surrounding road network
• E.g., on high-speed roads, traffic signals which require abrupt changes of
speed should be avoided
• Roundabout should be avoided in an area which is controlled by Area
Traffic Control (area-wide control of traffic signals)

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 35

1. Junction Capacity
• Junction Capacity reflects the level of vehicle flows it can handle

• Junction Capacity, Design Flow, and Delays are three interrelated

concepts
• Design flow: input parameter, what is the traffic volume we anticipate the
junction needs to handle
• Junction Capacity: depends on junction type and physical characteristics of
junction => Will learn how to determine Junction Capacity
• Delay: longer delay if junction is operating close to capacity, some approaches
will experience more delay than other approaches

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 36

1. Junction Capacity
Junction Capacity Delay
• the level of vehicle • longer delay if junction
flows it can is operating close to
(reasonably) handle capacity
(e.g. acceptable delay) • some approaches may
experience more delay
than other approaches

Design Flow
• Input parameter
• The traffic volume we
anticipate the junction
needs to handle

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 37

1. Junction Capacity
• In general, junction capacity approx. follow this order:

(conventional)

• NO hard and fast rule in choosing junction type according to design

flow

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 38

 Approximate priority junction provision on single carriageway roads
based on flows only

For example

We will come Types of

back to this priority
chart later junction

CD123 Section 2
CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 39
Design Flow
• In designing and evaluating all junction types it is necessary to predict
design flows, which should be
1. peak hour volumes,
2. for a future year not less than 10 years after scheme implementation.
3. Consider fluctuations and uncertainty
• The junction design needs to provide adequate capacity to handle the
predicted flows in the design year.

TPDM Vol 2 Ch 4. 4.2.4

• Details:

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 40

Design Flow TPDM Vol 2 Ch 4. 4.2.4

• To cater for variation, design for the maximum instead of average flow
• Hourly, daily and seasonal variation
• Based on highest expected design flow, especially for those infrequently occurred peak,
• so that the designed junction control would be able to cater for the heaviest traffic flow condition.
• In some cases, the design flow may be considerably higher than the average future flow predicted by
modelling techniques.

• Unexpected, short-term variation: add some safety margin

• Where short duration queuing is expected to be a particular problem, allowance should also
be made, in deriving the design flow, for short term variation within the peak hour.
• For the manual calculation of capacities, described in the sections on priority junctions and
roundabouts, it is suggested that an increase of 10-15% be applied to the peak hour flows to
allow for this occurrence.

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 41

Example of data in Annual Traffic Census Traffic Flow at specific counting station

Road type

Vehicle
composition
and
Variation in occupancy
traffic
volume

2-way AADT = sum for two directions

In junction design for single carriageway, we
AADT (annual normally consider 2-way AADT
average daily
traffic),
peak hour, Because traffic flows in both directions will
peak hour affect opportunities for vehicles in the minor
flow data road to turn into the major road (and so on)

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 42

Delay
• Closely related to capacity and
design flow.
• As design flow approaches the
capacity of the junction, delay
will increase.

Image source
https://coconuts.co/singapore/news/gridlock-yio-chu-kang-road-junction-
drivers-turn-kiasu-after-traffic-lights-glitch-out/

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 43

 Delay
• Priority junctions
• Delays will be experienced only by the minor road traffic.
• Major road traffic will flow virtually unimpeded.
• The heavier is the major road traffic, the longer the delay
experienced by minor traffic.
• Long delays to minor road traffic encourage smaller *gap
acceptance and a consequent increase in accidents.

* Check out this link if you are interested in Gap acceptance theory
Troutbeck R.J., Brilon W. (1997), Unsignalized Intersection Theory
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/operations/tft/chap8.pdf

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 44

Delay
• Traffic signals e.g. 3am

• Unlike priority junctions, traffic signals can

distribute delay fairly so that no particular
movement suffers disproportionate delays.
• At low levels of flow however, total delay at a
junction will increase when compared with a Image source: https://encrypted-
priority layout. tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRU2rkLWQ6lbMvbkKH
_SJXNBnH5Apg9wjbsaA&usqp=CAU

• Delays can be minimised by linking adjacent traffic

signal controlled junctions
• Signal coordination

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 45

Delay
• Roundabouts
• With well balanced flows, delays at roundabouts will
be minimised over a full range of flow up to levels
which are close to capacity.
• Problems can arise with single predominant flows
causing long delays. Image source:
https://i0.wp.com/bestsellingcarsblog.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/01/Traffic-Jam.-Picture-courtesy-
businessinsider.com_.jpg

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 46

Safety
Junction Type Safety Explanation
Priority Junction High accident rate • High difference in speed between through
and turning traffic at priority junctions
• Total dependence on the judgment of minor
road drivers to determine what is a safe gap
in the major road traffic stream
Roundabouts Less severe accident Low vehicle speeds when entering roundabout
then other at-grade
junction types
Traffic Signal Low accident rate Positive indication provided to drivers
Rear end accidents Vehicles stopping suddenly when lights change.
usually increase

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 47

Economics Considerations
• Cost vs benefits How do “priority junction”, “traffic signal
junction”, “roundabout” and “interchange”
• Costs: construction costs, land costs etc. compares in construction cost/ land cost?
• Benefits: reduced delay and accidents, etc.
• Cost: staged construction
• Delaying construction of part of a junction layout until traffic volumes increase sufficiently to warrant
the more extensive design.

Traffic Increases
Signal Control
Priority Junction
Roundabout

Why?
CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 48
Pedestrian Considerations
• The needs of pedestrians are no less important than the needs of
vehicular traffic in junction design.
• Forecasts of future pedestrian demand
• Adequate capacity and minimum delay for pedestrians.
• Safety

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 49

Pedestrian Considerations
• Priority junctions
• Easy to negotiate for pedestrians
• Intended crossing place should be
indicated with guard-railing. Guard rail
• Physical islands offer refuge to
pedestrians, allowing them to cross
different directions of traffic in stages. Island

• As pedestrian volumes increase,

controlled crossings may be
required on one or more arms of
the junction and can be quite
compatible with priority control.

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 50

 Pedestrian Considerations
• Traffic signals • Wherever justified however,
• The safest and most efficient way of separate pedestrian phases should
dealing with pedestrians at-grade. be included to give a positive
indication of when to cross.
• With light pedestrian flow levels Green Man Crossings

where pedestrian only phases are

not justified, pedestrians still have
the opportunity to cross traffic
streams.
No pedestrian
Line of Studs
traffic light

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 51

 Cautionary crossings at signal-controlled
junctions
traffic signals for drivers only and indicated
by road studs.
Transport Department - At-grade
Pedestrian Crossings

Map link
https://goo.gl/maps/R91iS6uYkiLBfoe9A

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 52

Pedestrian Considerations
• Roundabouts
• The least appropriate type of at-grade junction
for pedestrians
• unless they are catered for on an exclusive
segregated network.
• The flared approaches to roundabouts
make the sitting of crossing facilities
difficult and it is often desirable to site the
crossing some way back from the give way
line where the carriageway width is shorter.

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 53

Other considerations
• Environmental and topographical considerations

• Consistency with the surrounding road network:

• E.g. roundabout should be avoided in an area which is controlled by Area
Traffic Control (signal synchronization)
• Similarly on high-speed roads, traffic signals which require abrupt changes of
speed should be avoided

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 54

 TPDM Vol 2 Ch 4.
Table 4.2.9.1
Design
Priority Junction Traffic Signal Junction Roundabout Junction Grade Separated Junction
Parameter
Capacity Low - moderate flows Moderate - high flows Moderate - high flows High flows
Delay At top end of flow range Adjacent junctions can be Little delay if capacity not No delay to major through
long delays experienced by linked to minimise delay. exceeded traffic. Little or no delay to
minor road traffic minor turning movements
However unnecessary
delay unavoidable during
most quiet hours even
with minimum cycle time
Safety Relies heavily on driver Low right turn and Generally the safest form Some or all conflicting
judgement and is pedestrian accident rate of at-grade junction over a movements are removed
susceptible to accidents at but may cause high rear wide range of flows and with a consequent
top end of flow range end accident rate speeds decrease in number of
especially on high-speed accidents. The few
roads accidents which do occur
may be severe owing to
high speeds

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 55

 TPDM Vol 2 Ch 4.
Table 4.2.9.1
Design
Priority Junction Traffic Signal Junction Roundabout Junction Grade Separated Junction
Parameter
Economic Very low construction Generally very cost May be extravagant in Construction costs are
Considerations costs, but land take may effective. Cost of terms of land take and high but these should be
be costly for larger equipment is offset by consequently expensive. offset against reduction in
physical island reduction in land take However, check small and community costs through
channelized junctions mini roundabout designs fewer accidents, less delay
etc.
Grade Separated
Interchanges can also be
economic users of land
Pedestrian Small simple junctions and Pedestrians can generally Pedestrian routes through Grade separated
Considerations those with physical be catered for better at roundabout junctions may pedestrian facilities
channelisation may signals than at other at- be diverse and required
adequately cater for grade junctions through unattractive. Subways
pedestrian demand. positive indication and/or footbridges should
Shadow islands however be considered for heavy
should be avoided if pedestrian demand
pedestrian flow is heavy

CSE40407 - Topic 2 Junctions - Dr Barbara WY SIU ([email protected]) 56