Microscope Parts and Functions
• A microscope is an optical instrument that uses lenses to magnify very small
objects for observation.
o It is a powerful tool that allows scientists to see things that are invisible to
the naked eye in order to study the microscopic world.
• A microscope has parts that are classified into three major groups: the mechanical
parts, the magnifying parts, and the illuminating parts.
• To get the total magnification of the specimen viewed, multiply the magnification
of the ocular lens to the objective used in magnifying the image of the specimen.
These lenses are usually labeled with their magnification values.
o Example: Ocular lens = 5x and Low Power Objective = 10x. Therefore, 5 X
10 = 50x is the total magnification of the specimen.
Organization of Living Organisms
• A living organism, in increasing order of complexity, is organized
into atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems. The group of organisms of the same species living in a particular area
is termed as population.
• An ecosystem consists of different communities (of different species) with an
assemblage of the populations (of a single species) that interact with the
nonliving components of the environment.
• At the highest level of organization, and thus with the highest complexity is
the biosphere. It is the sum of all biomes. It includes every plant, animal, human,
microorganism, and nonliving things such as land, water, and atmosphere on
Earth.
Characteristics of Living Things
• Just remember the acronym MRS GREN to determine the characteristics of a living
organism.
o Moves, Respires, Senses, Grows, Reproduces, Excretes, and Nourishes.
• The most important characteristic is that all living organisms are composed
of cells.
Theories on the Origin of Life: Panspermia
• Panspermia was proposed by different scientists such as Jons Jakob
Berzelius (1834), Hermann E. Richter (1865) and Svante Arrhenius (1903).
This states that life was distributed throughout the universe with the cosmic dust
which then reached the earth and evolved into different life forms.
Theories on the Origin of Life: Abiogenesis
• The theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis states that life arose
from nonliving matter.
• This theory was presented by Aristotle. This was the belief for a very long time
until it was challenged and disproved through a series of experiments by some
scientists.
o Francesco Redi is an Italian scientist who first tried to disprove the origin
of life from nonliving matter.
• Although Redi’s experiment was well-executed, the belief about spontaneous
generation theory remained strong. One of its supporters, John Needham (1748),
an English priest and biologist, proposed an experiment that proves the validity of
spontaneous generation.
• In 1767, an Italian scientist named Lazzaro Spallanzani challenged and modified
the experiment of Needham.
Theories on the Origin of Life: Biogenesis
• Biogenesis was conceptualized by Louis Pasteur. This states that life comes from
preexisting life through
reproduction.
Cells are generally small in size that they can only be viewed and magnified through the
use of a microscope.
Cells must have a high surface area to volume ratio to ensure that they get adequate
nutrients and prevent a high concentration of wastes from accumulating.
Generally, cells function for support and protection, regulation of the internal environment,
response to external stimuli, and acquisition and utilization of energy for cellular activities.
Different scientists were involved in the development of the cell theory before it was
finalized into three major statements.
The principles of the cell theory disproved the long-held belief of many scientists about
the theory of spontaneous generation.
• The cell is divided into the following main regions:
o The plasma membrane is mostly composed of phospholipids. It serves as the primary
barrier of the cell and is semi-permeable in nature.
o The cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments. The cytoskeletal elements provide support and framework and facilitate
motility in cells.
o The cytoplasm is a jelly-like structure composed of the semi-fluid cytosol where all
organelles and other cellular contents are immersed or suspended.
o The cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan in bacterial cells and cellulose in plant cells. It
gives a rigid structure for the cell and prevents it from bursting.
• A eukaryotic cell houses DNA in a nucleus. Nuclear pores allow the exchange of materials
through the nuclear envelope.
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids while the rough endoplasmic
reticulum synthesizes proteins.
• Golgi bodies work together with the endoplasmic reticulum to synthesize, store, transport, and
release molecules.
• Lysosomes, vacuoles, and peroxisomes are the digestion centers of the cell.
• The mitochondria house the cellular respiration of the cell.
• Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts which are only present in plant and algal cells.
