REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Submitted to: Charles Odal

Submitted by:

Cabales, Marie Ramos

Doping, Reda
Jalalon, Mel
Maurillo, Analyn Tirambolo
Pacon, Drethelane
Sabanal, Zee S.
Sevilla, Alia Joy

DECEMBER 29, 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

i
 i
Title page
Table of contents ii
Objectives iii

PARTS
1
INTRODUCTION
1
Definition and purposes
1
Relevance
1
Scope
BODY 3
Anatomy and Physiology 3
Hormonal Regulation 8
Reproductive process 11
Reproductive system in Different life Stages 18
Homeostatic Imbalance 12
CONCLUSION 25
Summary 25
Signifance 25
BILIOGRAPHY
26
STUDENT CONTRIBUTION 26

OBJECTIVES

The main thrust of this report is to thoroughly study about the various aspects of reproductive system.
More specifically, the study has the following set of objectives:

ii
• to conduct a thorough studies on the reproductive system's processes.
• to distinguish and learn more about the reproductive system's anatomical and physiological
aspects.
• to learn about the various diseases associated with the reproductive system.
• To grasp knowledge about the different life stages of reproductive system.

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 INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION AND PURPOSES

The reproductive system is an important part of human anatomy, involving a collaborative effort
between male and female reproductive organs to allow for the development and nurturing of kids. The
testes in men create sperm, whereas the ovaries in females produce eggs. Male and female gametes fuse
during reproduction, resulting in the development of a cell with genetic material from both parents.
Beyond conception, female reproductive organs such as the uterus play an important role in the continued
development of embryos and babies throughout pregnancy. This complex system requires the cooperation
of specialized organs, hormonal management, and the creation of a favorable environment for the growth
of new life.

RELEVANCE

The reproductive system is important in understanding the intricate processes of sexual

reproduction, as highlighted in the provided information. The overall function and structures of the
reproductive system provide knowledge to those studying the overall function of the human body and
therefore help address human health and reproduction. Moreover, various organs of the reproductive
system are needed to comprehend correctly for diagnosing and treating diseases of the reproductive
system. Overall, understanding the reproductive system is essential for advancing medical knowledge,
promoting reproductive health, and addressing the diverse aspects of human reproduction, from
conception to pregnancy

SCOPE

The scope of this report will cover various aspects of the reproductive system. It would involve
defining what the reproductive system is and its primary function in human biology. The relevance of
studying the reproductive system will be discussed, including its impact on human health and
reproduction. The report would delve into the anatomy and physiology of the male and female
reproductive organs, exploring their structure, function, and hormonal regulation. It would also explore
reproductive processes such as gametogenesis, fertilization, pregnancy, childbirth, and reproductive
system in different life stages. Additionally, the report would touch on topics such as reproductive
disorders, diseases, and their causes, symptoms, and treatments. By shedding light on these aspects, the

1
report aims to contribute to students’ understanding of the factors influencing pubertal development, with
implications for healthcare, education, and the overall well-being of adolescents.

BODY OF THE REPORT

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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 The male reproductive system consists of various organs and structures that work together to
produce and deliver sperm for reproduction. While, the female reproductive system is responsible for
producing ova (eggs), nurturing and protecting a developing fetus during pregnancy, and facilitating the
birth process.

Figure 1: Sagittal section of the testis and associated epididymis (Marieb, 2014, p. 539, fig.16.1)

Testes:

The testes are the primary male reproductive organs responsible for producing sperm and testosterone.
Each testis is enclosed by a fibrous connective tissue capsule called the tunica albuginea. The testes are
divided into lobules containing seminiferous tubules, where sperm production occurs. Interstitial cells,
located between the tubules, produce testosterone.

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Figure 2: Male reproductive organs a. sagittal view (Marieb, 2014, p.540, fig. 16.2)

Duct System:
The male duct system includes the epididymis, ductus deferens, and urethra.
Epididymis: The epididymis is a coiled tube located on the posterior side of each testis. It serves as a
temporary storage site for immature sperm, allowing them to mature and gain the ability to swim.
During ejaculation, the epididymis contracts to propel sperm into the ductus deferens.
Ductus Deferens: The ductus deferens, also known as the vas deferens, is a muscular tube that
connects the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. It carries mature sperm from the epididymis to the
urethra. The ductus deferens propels sperm forward through peristaltic contractions and is enclosed
within the spermatic cord.
Urethra: The urethra extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis and serves as
the terminal part of the male duct system. It carries both urine and sperm. During ejaculation, the
internal urethral sphincter constricts to prevent urine from entering the urethra while allowing sperm
to pass through.

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 Figure 3: B. Frontal view, posterior aspect of
penis (Marieb, 2014, p.541, fig.16.2 )

Accessory glands and semen:

The male reproductive system includes three main accessory glands: seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
bulbo-urethral glands.
Seminal Vesicles: The seminal vesicles are located at the base of the bladder and produce the
majority of seminal fluid. This fluid nourishes and activates sperm, providing them with energy fuel
(fructose), prostaglandins, and other substances. The secretion from the seminal vesicles joins the
ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.
Prostate Gland: The prostate gland surrounds the prostatic part of the urethra just below the urinary
bladder. It secretes a milky fluid that enhances sperm activation. The prostate secretion enters the
urethra through small ducts during ejaculation.
Bulbo-urethral Glands: The bulbo-urethral glands are small pea-sized glands located below the
prostate gland. They produce a clear mucus that cleanses the urethra and acts as a lubricant during
sexual intercourse.
Semen: Semen is a mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions. It serves as a transport medium
for sperm and provides nutrients, protection against acidic environments, antibiotics, enzymes, and
substances that inhibit immune responses in the female reproductive tract. Semen also dilutes sperm
for optimal motility.

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External Genitalia:
The external genitalia of the male reproductive system include the penis and scrotum. The penis
contains the urethra, which allows for the passage of both urine and semen. The scrotum is a sac-like
structure that holds the testes outside the body, maintaining a lower temperature necessary for sperm
production.

Internal Structure:

Internally, the penis contains three elongated areas of erectile tissue that surround the spongy
urethra. These erectile tissues fill with blood during sexual excitement, causing the penis to enlarge and
become rigid, a process known as erection. The spongy urethra allows for the passage of both urine and
semen during ejaculation. During sexual arousal, the erectile tissues within the penis fill with blood,
causing an erection. This allows the penis to serve as a penetrating organ for delivering semen, which
contains sperm, into the female reproductive tract during ejaculation.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Figure 4: Sagittal view

of a human ovary showing the developmental stages of an ovarian follicle (Marieb, 2014, p.548, fig.
16.7)

Ovaries:
The ovaries are the primary reproductive organs in females. They produce ova and hormones such as
estrogens and progesterone. Ovaries contain numerous sac-like structures called ovarian follicles, which
consist of immature eggs (oocytes) surrounded by follicle cells. As an egg matures, the follicle enlarges,

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develops a fluid-filled central region called an antrum, and eventually reaches maturity, leading to
ovulation. The ruptured follicle transforms into a structure called the corpus luteum, which degenerates if
fertilization does not occur.

Figure 5: Then human Female reproductive organs. a. Sagittal section b. posterior view. (Marieb,
2014, p. 549, fig.16.8)

Duct System:
The duct system of the female reproductive tract includes the uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina.
Uterine Tubes: Also known as fallopian tubes, they receive ovulated oocytes and provide a site for
fertilization. The tubes have finger-like projections called fimbriae that partially surround the ovaries.
The oocyte is carried through the tube by peristalsis and the beating of cilia, taking approximately 3
to 4 days to reach the uterus. Fertilization usually occurs in the uterine tube.

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 Uterus: The uterus is a hollow organ located between the bladder and rectum. Its primary functions
are to receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized egg. The uterus consists of three layers: the inner
endometrium, which undergoes cyclic changes and sheds during menstruation if fertilization does not
occur; the middle myometrium, composed of smooth muscle that contracts during childbirth; and the
outer perimetrium, which is the serous layer.
Vagina: The vagina is a thin-walled tube that serves as the birth canal for delivering an infant and
allows menstrual flow to leave the body. It also receives the penis during sexual intercourse. The
distal end of the vagina may be partially closed by the hymen, which can vary in durability and may
be ruptured during various activities.
External Genitalia and Perineum:
The external genitalia, also known as the vulva, include the mons pubis, labia majora and minora, clitoris,
urethral and vaginal orifices, and greater vestibular glands.

Figure 6: External genitalia of the human

female (Marieb, 2014, p. 550, fig. 16.9)
Mons Pubis: The rounded area overlying the pubic symphysis, covered with pubic hair after puberty.
Labia Majora and Minora: The labia majora are elongated hair-covered folds that enclose the labia
minora, which are delicate, hair-free folds.
Clitoris: The clitoris is a small, protruding structure located anterior to the vestibule. It contains
sensitive erectile tissue similar to the male penis.
Perineum: The perineum is the diamond-shaped region between the anterior end of the labial folds,
the anus posteriorly, and the ischial tuberosities laterally.

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HORMONAL CONTROL AND
REGULATION

According to Tortora & Derrickson

(2014), the hormonal regulation of the female and
male reproductive systems shares fundamental
similarities through the hypothalamic-pituitary-
gonadal (HPG) axis. In both systems, the
hypothalamus secretes Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone (GnRH), prompting the release of
gonadotropins, namely Follicle-Stimulating
Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH),
from the anterior pituitary. These hormones play
crucial roles in orchestrating reproductive
functions. Moreover, Negative feedback
mechanisms, involving sex hormones inhibiting
GnRH and gonadotropin release, are present in
both systems (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p.
1047-1048, 1069-1070).

Figure 7: Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis and actions of

testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (Tortora & Derrickson,
2014, p. 1048, fig. 28.7)

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 In males, the author also stated that FSH stimulates spermatogenesis, while LH stimulates
testosterone production. It begins with the brain releasing a hormone called Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone (GnRH), which triggers the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. LH signals the
testes to produce testosterone, a key male hormone, while FSH and testosterone work together to support
the production of sperm. Testosterone also has various effects, including promoting the development of
male sexual organs and characteristics. Once enough sperm is produced, a hormone called inhibin is
released to slow down the process (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1047-1048).

Figure 8: Secretion and physiological effects of estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin in the
female reproductive cycle (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1070, fig. 28.23)

In females, FSH and LH regulate ovarian follicle development, ovulation, and the production of
estrogen and progesterone (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1069-1070). It was also mentioned that
reproductive cycles in females are intricately regulated by the hormone Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. GnRH prompts the release of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary. FSH initiates the growth of ovarian

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follicles, while LH further develops them and stimulates the production of estrogens. Estrogens play vital
roles in promoting the development of female reproductive structures, secondary sex characteristics, and
maintaining the breasts. They also contribute to bone strength, lower blood cholesterol levels, and have a
regulatory role by inhibiting the release of GnRH and LH. At midcycle, according to Tortora &
Derrickson (2014), LH triggers ovulation and promotes the formation of the corpus luteum, which
produces estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin. Progesterone, working with estrogens, prepares
the endometrium for potential pregnancy and readies mammary glands for milk secretion. Relaxin relaxes
the uterus, facilitating the possibility of implantation, and during pregnancy, it continues to ease uterine
contractions. Inhibin, secreted by follicles and the corpus luteum, inhibits FSH and LH secretion,
contributing to the delicate hormonal balance essential for reproductive processes in women.

REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS

Gametogenesis:

Gametogenesis is the process by which diploid germ cells (gonocytes) undergo meiosis to produce
haploid gametes (sperm or eggs). This process occurs in the gonads, which are the reproductive organs:
testes in males and ovaries in females. In addition, gametogenesis has two types: SPERMATOGENESIS
and OOGENESIS.

1. Spermatogenesis.
In human beings, spermatogenesis takes 65-75 days. It all begins with spermatogonia, which
possesses diploid chromosomes. They go through mitosis, and some spermatogonia stay near the
basement membrane. The surviving spermatogonia lose contact with the basement membrane, squeeze
through tight junctions in the blood-testis barrier, undergo developmental changes, and differentiate into
primary spermatocytes. Each spermatocyte duplicates its DNA and then meiosis occurs in primary
spermatogonia, which has 46 chromosomes. Crossing-over happens when homologous pairs of
chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate during meiosis I. Secondary spermatocytes are the two cells
produced by meiosis I. A secondary spermatocyte has 23 chromosomes, each of which is made up of two
chromatids still connected by a centromere, but there is no DNA replication. In meiosis II, the
chromosomes line up in a single file along the metaphase plate, and the two chromatids of each
chromosome split. Spermatids are the four haploid cells that form as a result of meiosis II (Tortora &
Derrickson, 2014, p. 1043 ).

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Figure 9: stages of sperm production (spermatogenesis) (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1043).

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 Figure 10: Stages of sperm production (Marieb, 2014, p.543, fig. 16.3)

2. Oogenesis and Follicular Development.

Primordial germ cells travel from the yolk sac to the ovaries during early fetal development. Within
the ovaries, germ cells develop into oogonia, which are diploid stem cells that divide mitotically to create
millions of germ cells. Most of these germ cells degenerate before birth, a condition known as atresia.
The cells then mature into bigger cells known as primary oocytes, which begin the prophase of meiosis I
during fetal development. Each main oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of flat follicles termed
primordial follicles during the halted period of development. Gonadotropins (FSH and LH) are released
by the anterior and encourage the production of numerous primordial follicles each month after
adolescence until menopause.

A small number of primordial follicles begin to grow and develop into primary follicles; in the
later stages of development, each primary follicle is made up of a primary oocyte that is surrounded. As
the main follicle develops, a clear glycoprotein layer known as the zona pellucida forms. Furthermore,
stromal cells surrounding the basement membrane create an ordered layer known as theca folliculi. The
theca divides into two layers in the secondary follicle:

a. Theca interna – a highly vascularized internal layer of cuboidal secretory cells that
secrete estrogen and,
b. The externa - an outer layer of stromal cells and collagen fibers

Moreover, granulosa cells accumulate in the antrum, a hollow in the center of the secondary
follicle. Corona radiata refers to the deepest layer of granulosa cells. The secondary follicle grows and
matures, and right before ovulation, the diploid main oocyte completes meiosis I, generating two haploid
eggs, named the first polar body the smaller cells generated by meiosis.

The secondary oocyte obtains the majority of the cytoplasm; once produced, it initiates meiosis II
but then stops in metaphase. At ovulation, the secondary oocyte, together with the first polar body and
corona radiata, is discharged into the pelvic cavity, and the secondary oocyte separates into haploid cells
of equal size. The bigger cell is known as an ovum or mature egg, while the smaller one is known as the
second polar body. The nuclei of sperm and ovum fuse to produce a diploid zygote. If the first polar body
divides again to become two polar bodies, the main oocyte eventually gives rise to three haploid polar

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bodies, all of which degenerate, and a single haploid ovum. As a result, one primary oocyte produces a
single gamete. By contrast, recall that in males one primary spermatocyte produces four gametes (Tortora
& Derrickson, 2014, p.1057)

Figure 11: Summary of Oogenesis and Follicular Development (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1060,
table 28.1)

Fertilization

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 The uterine or fallopian receives the ovulated oocyte and provides a site where fertilization can
occur. As an oocyte is expelled from an ovary during ovulation, the waving fimbriae create fluid into the
uterine tube, where it begins its journey toward the uterus. As the oocyte is viable for up to 24 hours after

ovulation. To reach the oocyte the sperm must swim upward through the vagina and uterus in order to
reach the uterine tube. If fertilization occurs, the fertilized egg burrows into the endometrium in the
process called implantation and resides there for the rest of its development ( Marieb, E. N.2014).

Figure 12: Diagrams showing the approximate size of human conceptus from fertilization to the early
fetal stage (Marieb, 2014, p. 558 fig. 16.15)

Pregnancy

Pregnancy is a difficult time for the mother and it's a complex and dynamic process that spans
approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters. However, the first 8 weeks of the pregnancy is the
end of the embryonic period, in which the fetus' head is nearly as large as the body and all major brain
regions. In the first 3rd months the head is still dominant but the body is elongating and the brain
continues to enlarge. In 4rth months, the general sensory organs are already present. In the fifth month,
the mother feels the spontaneous muscular activity of the fetus. After the mother carries the child in her
womb for 9 months, there's this process that we call "Childbirth" (Marieb, E. N.2014).

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Figure 13: Relative size of the uterus before conception and during pregnancy (Marieb, 2014, p. 564, fig.
16.20)

Figure 14: Photographs of the Developing fetus (Marieb, 2014, p. 536, fig. 16.19)

Childbirth

Childbirth is the process of delivering a baby from the mother's uterus, is a complex and dynamic
event marked by a series of physiological changes and events. However, there are three stages of labor
according to Marieb (2014)

Stage 1: Dilation - The cervix, the opening at the bottom of the uterus, begins to dilate, gradually
increasing from a closed state to fully dilated to allow the passage of the baby's head. Dilation also known
as breaking the water, this stage is the longest part of labor usually lasts for 6 - 12 hours or more.

Stage 2: Expulsion - As the baby's head reaches the pelvic floor, the mother's involuntary
bearing-down reflexes engage, helping to push the baby down the birth canal. With each bearing-down

16
effort, the baby's head advances through the birth canal, rotating to align with the mother's pelvic outlet.
The baby's head crowns become visible at the vaginal opening. The mother may experience an intense
burning sensation known as the "ring of fire". With continued bearing-down efforts, the baby's head is
delivered, followed by the shoulders and the rest of the body. During extremely prolonged or difficult
labor or delivery, a condition may occur and be called as dystocia, to prevent these outcomes a cesarean
section or called as c-section, may be performed (Marieb, 2014).

Stage 3: Placental Stage - This stage is usually accomplished within 15 minutes after birth of the
infants in order to prevent postpartum bleeding; it is very essential that all placental fragment is removed.

Figure 15: The three stages of labor (Marieb, 2014,

p. 566, fig. 16.22)

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN DIFFERENT LIFE STAGES

Embryonic Development: the fundamental elements of male and female reproductive systems
follow a shared path. Around the eighth week of gestation, the differentiation of gonads into testes or
ovaries is guided by the presence or absence of testosterone, and abnormalities at this crucial stage
establish the basis for distinct male and female reproductive structures, potentially resulting in congenital
disorders impacting the reproductive system.

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 Figure 16: Embryonic Development (source: byjus.com)

Childhood and Puberty: Throughout childhood, the reproductive system is largely dormant, yet
with the arrival of puberty, typically in adolescence, significant transformations occur within the
reproductive organs. Hormonal cues initiate the maturation of the reproductive system, rendering
individuals capable of engaging in sexual reproduction. This pivotal stage marks the commencement of
the menstrual cycle in females and the initiation of sperm production in males, establishing the
groundwork for reproductive capabilities in adulthood.

Figure 17: childhood and puberty

development (source:
https://www.informedhealth.org/growth-in-childhood-and-puberty.html)

Young Adulthood: During the early adult years, people may encounter prevalent reproductive
challenges, including infections and neoplasms. Women have an increased susceptibility to breast and
cervical cancers, while men should be vigilant about prostate cancer. This life stage is marked by the
capacity for childbearing, emphasizing the importance of proactive reproductive health management
through routine screenings and preventive actions.

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 Menopause and Aging: Women generally undergo menopause between their late 40s and early
50s, signaling the conclusion of reproductive capabilities. Hormonal shifts, organ atrophy, and symptoms
like hot flashes and mood swings characterize this transition. In contrast, aging men do not encounter a
similar endpoint in reproductive capabilities, maintaining their ability to produce viable sperm throughout
their lives despite the decline in fertility and cessation of menstrual cycles.

Figure 18: Estrogen Hormone Levels(Source:https://health.usf.edu/care/diabetes-

endocrinology/services-specialties/hormone)

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DISORDERS/DISEASES

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 Figure 19: Female reproductive system homeostatic imbalances. a. Premenstrual syndrome (source:
https://images.app.goo.gl/qzknxudexQq3Tmo4A). b. Pelvic inflammatory disease (source:
https://images.app.goo.gl/DiY7hXNs1mDCwJ6i8). c. cervical cancer (source:
https://images.app.goo.gl/tWa38BSYB61JBToAA). d. Endometriosis. e. ovarian cancer
(source:https://images.app.goo.gl/DsesYsda5bPRYUFS9).

Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS). A severe physical and emotional disorder that occurs during
the postovulatory phase of the female reproductive cycle and disappears when menstruation begins.
Symptoms vary from woman to woman and include edema, breast swelling, abdominal distension,
fatigue, sleepiness, depression, anxiety, irritability and many more. The cause of PMS is unknown
however, avoiding unhealthy food habits and proper diet help alleviate symptoms. ( Tortora &
Derrickson, 2014, p. 1080)

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease. An infection of a woman’s reproductive organs which are caused
by sexually transmitted bacteria spreading from the vagina to the uterus, fallopian tubes, or ovaries.
Lower abdominal pain, abnormal vaginal discharge, painful urination, and irregular menstrual bleeding
are some of the major symptoms of this disease. However, it can be treated though taking antibiotics.
(Marieb, 2014, p. 548)

Cervical Cancer. A disease that is prevalent among women aged 30-50, with risk factors
including frequent inflammation, sexually transmitted diseases, multiple pregnancies, and multiple sexual
partners. Pap smear is the main diagnostic test, but HPV tests can be done. Shown symptoms are pelvic
pain and abnormal vaginal bleeding. Preventive measures include Gardasil, a three-dose vaccine, which is
recommended for 11 and 12-year-old girls that blocks HPV-induced cervical cancer. It can also be treated
by specific surgeries and therapies. (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1083)

Endometriosis. It is distinguished as the development of endometrial tissue outside the uterus.

The exposed pelvic cavity is where the tissue enters several. These tissues can be found on different
female reproductive organs such as ovaries, fallopian tubes and pelvic structures. When this occurs
outside the uterus, it can cause inflammation, pain, scarring, and even infertility. Symptoms also include
premenstrual pain or unusually severe menstrual pain. (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1082)

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 Ovarian Cancer. A type of cancer that begins in the ovaries which is known for producing eggs
in females. Risk factors such as age, race, family history, active ovulation, nulliparity, a high-fat, low-
fiber diet, and prolonged exposure to asbestos or talc causes the rise of this disease. Early symptoms that
can be observe include abdominal discomfort, heartburn, nausea, and loss of appetite. Moreover, Later-
stage symptoms are shown such abdominal pain, gastrointestinal disturbances, urinary complications,
menstrual irregularities, and heavy menstrual bleeding. Thus, this can be treated by removing tumor
through surgeries and conducting therapies (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1082)

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DISORDERS

Figure 20: Male reproductive system

homeostatic imbalances. f. Erectile dysfunction (https://images.app.goo.gl/nvKCofc7FCf7bxTk7). g.

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 Prostatitis (https://images.app.goo.gl/Q53Jmkqi1rV1GKQR6). h. Male infertility
(https://images.app.goo.gl/nK5eyKJd11ZznosP9). i. Endometriosis
(https://images.app.goo.gl/GiUScrNEAQJkaAas9). j. ovarian cancer
(https://images.app.goo.gl/DbMgFrmds3Gh1EPo7).

Erectile Dysfunction. The inability of an adult male to ejaculate or hold an erection long enough
for sexual intercourse. It is often caused by insufficient nitric oxide release, which relaxes the smooth
muscle of the penile arterioles and erectile tissue. Other causes include diabetes, physical abnormalities,
systemic disorders, vascular disturbances, neurological disorders, surgery, and psychological factors. It
can be treated through lifestyle changes, vacuum erection devices, penile injections, counselling and
surgery. (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1080)

Prostatitis. It refers to the inflammation of the prostate gland, a walnut-sized gland located below
the bladder in men. It is a common condition that can affect men of all ages. The symptoms are pain or
discomfort in the pelvic area, painful urination, urgent urination, and sexual dysfunction. However, it can
be treated through antibiotics, pain relievers, lifestyle changes, and physical therapy. ( Tortora &
Derrickson, 2014, p. 1080)

Male Infertility. It is the inability to cause pregnancy in a fertile female partner. It can be due to
the various factors that affect sperm production and function, or the delivery of the sperm. Risk factors
also include smoking, excessive alcohol or drug use, obesity, or certain medical conditions. This can be
prevented by having a good lifestyle, healthy diet and exercise. (Marieb, 2014, p. 542)

Testicular Cancer. The most common cancer in males aged 20-35 originates from the testicles
of males. Early signs include a mass in the testis, heaviness, or abdominal pain. To detect early cancer,
males should perform regular self-examinations of their testes such as rolling each testicle between
fingers and thumb, looking for lumps, swellings, hardness, or other changes. Treatments include surgical
and therapeutic procedures. (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1080)

Prostate Cancer. Occurs when there is an uncontrolled growth of cells in the prostate. It is a
common cancer in men, especially as they age. Symptoms may include difficulty urinating, blood in the
urine or semen, and pain or discomfort in the pelvic area. Early detection through screening tests like
prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood tests and digital rectal exams (DRE) is important for effective
management and treatment. (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014, p. 1080)

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CONCLUSION

Summary- (arranged by PACON, DRETHELANE R.)

Significance- (arranged by CABALES, RIENE MARIE R.)

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BILIOGRAPHY

Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding anatomy & physiology: A Visual, Auditory,

Interactive Approach. F A Davis Company.

Marieb, E. N. (2014). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Pearson Higher Ed.

Tortora, G., and Derrickson, B. (2009). Principles of Anatomy & Physiology (12 ed.)

Tortora, G., and Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of Anatomy & Physiology (14 ed.)

Suede, S. H. (2023, March 6). Histology, spermatogenesis. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553142/

Gilbert, S. F. (2013). Developmental biology (10th ed.). Sinauer Associates.

Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2016). Essentials of human anatomy and physiology (13th ed.).

Marieb, E. N. (2014). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th Edition) (11th ed.).

Pearson

STUDENT CONTRIBUTION

PAGE 1: TITLE PAGE - (arranged by zee sabanal)

PAGE 2: TABLE OF CONTENTS & OBJECTIVES- (arranged by SABANAL, ZEE S.)

PAGE 3: INTRODUCTION - (arranged by MAURILLO, ANALYN T.)

Definition and purposes - (compounded and discussed by SEVILLA, ALIA JOY M.)

Relevance - (compounded and discussed by MAURILLO, ANALYN T.)

24
 Scope - (compounded and discussed by PACON, DRETHELANE R.)

PAGE 4: BODY - (arranged by DOPING, REDA MAE G.)

Anatomy and Physiology- (arranged by SABANAL, ZEE S.)

Hormonal Regulation- (arranged by CABALES, RIENE MARIE R.)

Reproductive process- (arranged by JALALON, MELCHIE R.)

Reproductive system in Different life stages- (arranged by SEVILLA, ALIA JOY M.)

Diseases/Homeostatic Imbalance/Reproductive disorder- (arranged by DOPING, REDA MAE

G.)

PAGE 5: BIBLIOGRAPHY & STUDENT CONTRIBUTION- (arranged by SEVILLA, ALIA JOY

M.)

CONCLUSION

Summary- (arranged by PACON, DRETHELANE R.)

Significance- (arranged by CABALES, RIENE MARIE R.)

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