11 1.2 Introduction : Instrumentation has become the heart of the industrial applications due to the possibility of system automation. Instrumentation is being used in industry on a large scale since 1930. With the introduction of electronics, availability of reliable electrical equipments, sophisticated monitoring systems etc., the use of instrumentation increased to a great extent in the last three or four decades. A transducer converts the measurand into a usable electrical signal. The transducer is a device which is capable of converting the physical quantity into a proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or current. Transducer Definition : Transducer is a device which converts a physical quantity to be measured into an equivalent electrical signal (voltage or current). The physical quantity to be measured can be temperature, pressure, displacement, flow, vibration, etc. ‘The electrical signal obtained from the transducer is then used to control the physical quantity automatically and/or to display the same, as shown in Fig. 1.2.1. Output (Electrical signal) Input (Physical To the controller quantity) To the display unit Fig. 1.2.1 : Transducer ‘A transducer is also called as a pick up element. It contains two parts that are closely related to each other i.e the sensing-or detecting element and the transduction element.The sensing or detecting element is called as the sensor. It is a device Producn measurable response to change in physical conditions. The transduction element converts the sensor output to suitable electrical form, Fig. 1.2.2 shows block diagram of a transducer. Sensor Parameter Output €.g. pressul Sensing Transduction Electrical signal temperature, element, element force eto. Fig. 1.2.2 : Transducer block diagram Generally the range of electrical signal used is 0 to SV or 4 to 20 mA, 4 to 20 mA range is commonly used to represent an analog signal. A current of 4 mA represents zero output while a current of 20 mA represents a full scale value. The zero condition represents open circuit is the transmission line. Hence, the standard range is offset from zero. Sometimes the transducer is a part of system and works with other elements to achieve desired output. This kind of circuit is called as a signal conditioning circuit.sof a transducer are as follows | ty of a transducer to withstand overloads, A- good wust have a high degree of ruggedness: ation between the output and input of a transducer should be linear, Lined very important characteristics while selecting, a transducer, . Repeatability e ability of a transducer (o reproduce the output si; (is applied repeatedly under the same environmental exactly when the conditions, 4. Accuracy : It is defined as ¢ of the actual output produced by a transducer, y being measured, For any transducer the to the ideal or true value of the accuracy should be as high as poss rin 2 minimum amount of erc¢ erature, vibrations and other 5. High stability and reliability : ‘There § measurement and it should be unaffected environmental variations. onds to the changes in 6. Speed of response : It shows how quickly a transdu the quantity being measured. The speed of response shoul high as possible. t produced per sitivity of a Sensitivity : The sensitivity of a transducer is defined as ( unit change in the input quantity being measured. For example’ thermocouple is expressed in mV°/C. The sensitivity should be as hi 8. Small size : A transducer must have small size, proper shape and mini so that it can be placed at any location for measurements, Dynamic range : The operating range of the transducer must be wide to al use under a wide range of measurement conditions. Types of Transducers : fied according to their structur The electrical transducers are cl application ar method of energy conversion, etc. The transducers are classified as : Active and passive transducers. Analog and digital transducers. Depending on the basis of transduction principle used. Primary and secondary transducer Transducers and Inverse transducer.1.5.1. Active and Passive Transducers : Active transducers : f power for their Operati Th ducers do not need any external source of P ~ 1. These transdu ii e transducers. The acy Therefore they are also called as self EGE tive transducers can be further classified as shown in Fig. *- Active transducers rs Photo Thermo Piezo _— Electro. Chemical © Other: voltaic electric electric magnetic Fig. 1.5.1 : Classification of active transducers The active transducers are self generating devices which operate under the energy conversion principle. | . . At the output of active transducers we get an equivalent electrical output signal eg, temperature to electric potential, without any external source of energy being used. Passive transducers : e These transducers need external power supply for their operation. So they are not “self generating type” transducers, A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is used as an external power source. These transducers produce the output signal in the form of Variation in resistance, capacitance or some other electrical Parameter in response to the quantity to be measured. Passive transducers are further subdivided as shown in Fig. 1.5.2. Passive transduce! Variable resistance Variable reactance Opto electronic Hall ettect type Strain gauge * Thermistor + Potentiometric '* Photoconductors (LDR) Photo conductive Inductive Capacitive Variable reluctance Variable Permeability ; lot Fig. 15.2 : Classification of Passive transduce ers1.5.2 Analog and Digital Transducers : Depending on the nature of output obtained from a transducer, it is classified into two categories namely analog transducers and digital transducers. Analog transducers : The output of these transducers is in the analog form that means it isa continuous function of time. The examples of analog transducer are thermocouple, LVDT, strain gauge, etc. Digital transducers : ‘The output of these transducers is in the digital form that means it is in the form of digital pulses discrete in time. These pulses form a unique code for each value sensed. 1.5.3 Primary and Secondary Transducers : (1) Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical devices. The mechanical device converts the physical quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical devices are called as the primary transducers, because they deal with the physical quantity to be measured. (2) The electrical device then converts this mechanical signal into a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical devices are known as the secondary transducers. (3) Refer Fig. 1.5.3 in which the diaphragm acts as a primary transducer. It converts pressure (the quantity to be measured) into displacement (the mechanical signal). The displacement is then converted into electrical signal using LVDT. Hence LVDT acts as the secondary transducer. LVDT (Secondary transducer) AC input Output voltage % Pressure ee cer (Primary transducer) Pressure Fig. 1.5.3 : Primary and secondary transducers 1.5.4 Transducer and Inverse Transducer : Transducers convert non-electrical quantity to electrical quantity while inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a non electrical quantity.There are different examples of inverse wansducers that follow the above definition, The piezoelectric crystal comes into both the category i.e. transducer and inverse trang, ce, The operation of piezoelectric crystal as a transducer will be discussed in the further Sections . as an inverse transducer because When a voltage i mechanical displacement, The piezoelectric crystal also applied across its surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing & A PMMC instrument is also a inverse transducer in which current nee Coil moves jn 1 this, the current carried by it is converted into th . a stationary magnetic field because i force which causes displacement. i hanical dis) © An analog ammeter or voltmeter convert current into mechani placement, instruments like pen recorders However, such devices that include indicating ™ , : i 8 ical movement are oscilloscopes that convert the electrical signals to mechanical mo' placed at the output stage and are called as output transducers.i ae Applications me | Class of Transducer ES 7 , ent of slurries, sludg | : E i Flow measurement 0 urn lee ang | Sic lowmeters © Aretrcally conducting liquid. 4. | Ultrasonic () Flow measurement of liquids. 5._ | Bourdon Tubes, (i) __ Pressure measurement | paises i) Measurement of absolute, gauge and . : differential pressures. 7. | Thermocouples ‘Temperature measurement | — 8. | Loadcell | | 9. | In-line rotating torque sensor, | In-line stationary torque sensor, | 10. | Microphones 11. | Hall effect @ elet (ii) Displacement ent (ii) Measurement of cl 12. | Piezoelectric sensors @ Force measurement (ii) Pressure measurement (iii) Mass to frequency convert (iv) Temperature measurements (v)__ Accelerometers 1.9 Motion Transducers 1.9.1 Linear Variable Differential Transfor shown in Fig. 1.9.1(a). — Displacement Secondary - Fig. 1.9.1(a): Construction 9 Primary 9 LIM Se Zr ‘mer (LVDT) : Itis a passive differential inductive transducer, This is a variable inductance displacement t ransducer. The construction of LVDT is ZA Secondary - of LVDT4.9.1.1 Construction of LVDT : 1. Refer to Fig. 1.9.1(b). the LVDT consists of a primary winding and two identical . These windings are axially spaced and wound on a cylindrical coil ondary winding assembly, This rod is 19 this movable 2. A rod shaped magnetic core is positioned centrally inside the coil assem coils (winding provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux linking the 3. The moving object, displacement of which is to be measured, is coupled ( rod ac © Input ° Output voltage Log} Primary TULLE Displacement : 2 Secondary ° : PS] windings. = el - B 0 A Gore position Po = Por” Poa Linear range (b) Connections of LVDT windings (c) Transfer characteristics of LVDT Fig. 1.9.1 4. The two secondary winding are connected in series opposition as shown in Fig, 1.9.1(b). Hence the voltages induced into these windings are of opposite polarities. The output voltage is given by, fo +(1.9.1) © Where e,, and e,) are the emfs induced in the two secondary windings. © The transfer characteristics of LVDT is shown in Fig. 1.9.1(c). . It is the graph of output voltage against the core position. 1.9.1.2 Operation of LVDT: (i) The primary winding is connected'to shié ac source. (ii) | Assume that the core is exactly at the centre of the coil assembly. Then the flux linked to both the secondary windings will be equal. (iii) Due to equal flux linkage, the secondary induced voltages are equal but they have opposite polarities. (iv) The output voltage of LVDT ie. “e,” is therefore zero corresponding to the central position of the core. This position of the core is called as the “null position”. (v) Now if the core is displaced from its null iti ; : Position towards = linked to secondary-1 increases and flux linked to Sao eee eae ee me(i) (vid) 1.9. —~ “e 4” itput volt. Therefore the induced voltage “e,,” is now greater than “e,2” and the output voltage of LYDT ie. “e,” will be positive as shown in Fig. 1.9.1(C). ree Similarly if the core is displaced downwards i.e. towards the secondary 02” Will be greater than “e,,” and the output voltage “e,” will be negative. Thus the magnitude of output signal is made to vary “linearly” with the mechanicaj displacement. Hence the word “Linear,” is used in LVDT. The output is ane “differentially” between the two secondary windings. Hence the word “differential” is used in LVDT. 1.3 Principle of Operation of LVDT : The LVDT produces a differential voltage at its output which is proportional to the Position of the core, from its null position. Thus a voltage proportional to the displacement of core is obtained at the LVDT output, The operation of LVDT with the help of its transfer characteristics and equivalent circuits is as shown in Fig, 1.9.2. Output voltage eg) Core position Ac aC input input Pomary Primary = Displacement Displacement ee, * Pa Secondary Secondary windings windings Pot fee e, Negative ©, Positive ‘More coupling with Equal coupling with More coupling with] second secondary both secondaries first secondary | therefore eg, greater therefore e, equal therefore e,, greater’ than @o4 t0 4 than egg | Fig. 1.9.2 : Operation of LVDT1.9.1.5 Advantages of LVDT : PPI AAA wH- 10. 1. 12, Very fine resolution High accuracy Very good stability Linearity of transfer characteristic Ease of fabrication and installation Ability to operate at high temperature. teen (2mV/Volt/10 microns at 4 KHz ex‘ a Raa eee shock and vibration specially when the core spring is load with adverse effects. ‘Simple in construction. Low hysteresis and repeatability is excellent. Consume low power (typically less than 1 W) (better than 0.25 %) citation). 1.9.1.6 Disadvantages of LVDT: 1 yn Awe 7. LVDT is sensitive to the external magnetic fields. To minimize this effect magnetic shielding is necessary. Complicated circuitry is needed. Due to mass of the core, LVDT is not suitable for dynamic measurement (fast displacements). Larger displacements are needed to get appreciable differential output. Temperature affects performance. Dynamic response is limited. Affected by vibrations. 1.9.1.7. Applications of LVDT : LVDT can be used for the following : Le AWR YD In addition to displacement measurement the LVDT is i d i is used in Sure, load, acceleration, force, weight etc. Eat oe Measurement of displacement ranging from fraction of amm to afew ci As a secondary transducer for measurement of force, pressure wei a Measurement of liquid level in tank, ° weight, Measurement of tension in a chord, Measurement and control of thickness of metal sheet being rolled1.12. Thermistors : — ‘ero ms resistors. They are made of Semicond e dependent ; ee ae ure coefficient of resistivity. perature is nonlinear. Thermistors cy \ erat ative temperatt anges in tem, em 100° C to 300° C. ° Thermistors are also tempt materials which have a neg: . ‘The variation of resistance wi used to measure temperatures in the range wr can be expressed as, . The resistance of a thermisto a Ry = Roexp (4-7, ] Where R; = Resistance at T°K, Ro Resistance at Ty °K and 6 Characteristics temperature. ° The thermistors provide a large change in resistance for small changes in temperatut.t some cases the resistance of thermistor at room temperature may decrease as much! percent for each 1°C rise in temperature. Typically we can get a change of 80 ohms/°C which is much larger than a 7 ohms‘ change obtained from a platinum wire resistance sensor. Thus thermistors have ab? resolution. ° The variation in the resistance of a thermistor is as shown in Fig. 1.12.14. ig. 1.12.14. Resistance eceince decreases with ease in temperature 100 200 200 Temperature °C Fig 112.14: Variation in resistance ofa thermisto, stor with temperatureThe resistance decreases with increase in Negative ms tance temperature, hence this is called as the l-cnaractenstios negative temperature coefficient thermistor (NTC]. The resistance of thermistors varies from 0.5 Q to 0.75 MQ. The resistance-temperature characteristics of a thermistor are non-linear. Fig. 1.12.14 shows this. 3 8 6 Voltage (V) —> Fig. 1.12.15 shows V-I characteristics of On . a the thermistor. 10” 10° 10° 10° 10° 10 Current (A) —> -2 Fig. 1.12.15 : V-I characteristics of thermistor The voltage drop across the thermistor increases with the increase in current till a peak value is reached. After reaching the peak value the voltage drop decreases as the current increases. Thermistor exhibits negative resistance characteristics in this region. When large current and large voltages are applied to thermistors, the heat produced is sufficient to raise the temperature of the thermistor above the ambient temperature. This causes the resistance of the thermistor to decrease. As the amount of current drawn increases, the resistance of the thermistor continues to decrease. The current increases till the heat dissipated is equal to the power supplied i. the resistance of thermistor is a function of power dissipated. This characteristic is called self heating. It can be used to measure flow, pressure, liquid level, composition of gases, etc. Fig. 1.12.16 shows the current time (I-t) characteristics of a thermistor. 50 re 40 V=80V V=70V t 30 V=60V a V=50V = 2 V=40V z g 5 o 10 V=30V, ° 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time (seconds) —> Fig, 1.12.16 : Current time characteristics of thermistorconnections as a function of the applieg current It indic: J) maximum cur volt s the time delay to reac -12.11 Construction of Thermistors = rm ch as sintered mixtures of metajj Thermistors are constructed using the materials such as St ' ‘ copper. etc. oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, coppers : as small beads, disks, rods g Thermistors are available in various configurations such as : as shown in Fig. 1.12.17. 5 mm and are smalle The bead type thermistors have a diameter of 0.015 mm to 1.25 mm Hest in s to form probe size. The beads may be sealed in the tips of solid glass rod : easier to mount heir length varies Glass probes have diameter of approximately 2.5 mm and their leng! “fon 2.5 mm to 25 mm. /-Glass coating =p" End that are =o Disc type Rod type Washer type Bead type 1.12.17 : Configurations of thermistors The discs are made by pressing thermistor material under higl flat shapes with diameters varying from 2.5 mm to 25 mm. The probes are used for measuring temperature of li 300 Q to 100 MQ. Thermistors can be obtained in disc, dissipation is required. fh pressure into cylindrical iquids. The resistance ranges from washer or rod types in cases where greater power The disc type thermistors are generally used for tem 10 mm in diameter and are mounted on a plate or self The disc type thermistors are made by pressin, tons of pressure in a round di It produces flat pieces that are about 1.25-25 mm in diameter and 0.25-0.75 mm thick Their resistance values are from 19 to IMQ, They are sintered and wated with silver on two flat surfaces, perature control. They are about supporting. g the thermistors material under sever!The washer type thermistors are also manufactured like the disc type thermistors, except that a hole is created in the centre, so that a bolt can be mounted. The rod type thermistors are manufactured through dies. They are long cylindrical units having diameter of 1.25 mm, 2.75 mm and 4.25 mm. Their length is 12.5 mm-50 mm. Generally leads are attached to the ends the rods. The resistance of rod type thermistors varies from 1 kQ-50 kQ. Rod type thermistors can produce high resistance units. Also their power handling capacity is high. This makes them advantages over other types of thermistors. The thermistors can be connected in series / parallel depending on the power handling capacity of the instrument. Thermistors can be used in nuclear environments as they are chemically stable. They can also be used for integration of power pulses, as memory units as time delays etc due to their wide range of characteristics. Thus, thermistors are non-linear devices. They have a sensitivity of 3 mV/"C at 200°C. 1.12.12 Measurement Technique Using Thermistor : The changes in the thermistor resistance due to changes in temperature can be converted into proportional voltage changes using the standard Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 1.12.18(a) and (b). ‘The voltage proportional to the resistance changes is produced at the bridge output. This voltage can be applied to an OP-AMP for amplification and used it for controlling the temperature. The Wheatstone bridge shown in Fig. 1.12.18(b) has higher sensitivity because it uses two thermistors instead of one. @ b) Fig. 1.12.18 : RTD resistance measurement 1.12.13 Advantages of Thermistor : The advantages of thermistors are as follows : 1. They are suitable for precision temperature measurements, temperature control and temperature compensation.Ah wD 12 ” High resolution (80 Q/°C). Small size, compact, rugged and inexpensive. , a surement of temperature distribution or temperature gradient, Ideally suitable for me: When properly aged, they exhibit good stabilities. Fast response over narrow temperature range. Good sensitivity in the NTC region: Cold junction compensation not required due to de temperature. Conta pendence of resis not encountered due to large resis and lead resistance problems are 1.12.14 Disadvantages of Thermistor : The disadvantages of thermistor pype - are as follows ance characteristics is nonlinear. s — 100° C to 300° C). Temperature versus e: Not suitable for wide range operation. (Range i Low excitation current to avoid self heating. Needs external de power supply for its operation. Need of shielded power lines, filter etc due to high resistance. 1.12.15 Applications of Thermistor : Some of the typical applications of a thermistor are as follows : Prr Naw As a temperature sensor with or without compensation. In biomedical instrumentation. Measurement of power at high frequencies. ‘Measurement of level, flow and pressure of liquids. Measurement of composition of gases. Measurement of thermal conductivity. The response time of thermistors can vary from fraction of second to minutes. Hence, they can be used to provide time delay. In measuring the temperature distribution or temperature gradient.1.20.4 Photodiode : * The photodiode can be used to serve the same purpose as that of a photoconductive cell. © A photodiode is a reverse biased p-n junction diode. When it is not exposed to light the current that passes through the diode is small leakage current. As light passes through the diode the current passing through it increases. * — When a photodiode is operated with application of reverse voltage it operates like a photoconductive cell. When the photodiode operates without the application of reverse voltage it functions like a photovoltaic cell.Comparing the photodiodes Wil Photoconductors, the photodiode has bett frequency spectral respon: linearity and low noise. response, fast. Photodiode. The transistor is normally on due to th transistor turns off. 1.20.4.1 Drawbacks of Photodiodes : 1. 2. 3. 1.20.4.2 Applications of Photodiodes : Small active area. : In switching elements. Photo cell or a photovoltaic cell. 1 2. 3. 4. 1.20.5 Phototransistors : Ise The response time of a photodiode is very Fig. 1.20.6 shows a switching circuit using By the addition of a junction to the photodiode, ith er Light, NS Photo diode Fig. 1.20.6: Switching circult using phoig,, le ¢ bias resistor Rg. When the Photodiogy : illuminated ie. light falls on the photodiode, the base current is reduced ang the The rapid increase in dark current with temperature. Need of amplification at low illumination levels. In sound track readers due to fast response time. Detectors of modulated light in optical communication systems. its sensitivity can be increased. Duel the addition of the junction the sensitivity may increase upto 100 times. The result N-P-N device is called as a phototransistor. Fig. 1.20.7(a) shows the construction of! phototransistor and Fig. 1.20.7(b) shows its symbol. lilumination \\\ E B Cc | (a) Construction of Phototransj Fig. 1.20.7 ‘ition (b) Symbol1-85 Transducers and Sensors (AZ transducers & Measurements (SU) When light falls on the central region (i.e. on the base) the electron hole pairs are released. Due to this the barrier potential across the junctions lowers increasing the flow of electrons from the left to centre to right. For a given illumination on small area large output current is provided by the phototransistor than the photodiode and the photocell. Fig. 1.20.8 shows a relay control circuit. using phototransistor. The light incident on the phototransistor causes the current to increase. The voltage drop across the 20 kQ resistance increases and the relay is energised. The current is raised to operational level. In absence of light current through phototransistor is very small. This reduces the voltage drop across the resistance and relay is deenergized. Light ‘© Photo transistor 20k. 0 Vee ‘To controller circuit © Retr 3 Ee Fig, 1.20.8 : Relay control circuit using phototransistor 1.20.5.1 Advantages of Phototransistors : They are small in size. They consume less power. They operate immediately as they are turned on. They require less voltage for their operation. Their operating life is long. They have high gain and are used in digital applications. They are used in linear light meters. For operating relays. .20.5.2. Applications of Phototransistors : In shaft encoders to translate angular motion to digital code. As switching devices for digital circuits. Punch cards. Counting of objects. Pattern recognition. .20.6 Photovoltaic Cell : The photovoltaic cells genei radiation intensity. The name characteristic. ate a voltage that is proportional to the electromagnetic photovoltaic is because of the voltage generationWhen light falls on the central region (i.e. on the base) the electron hole pairs are released. Due to this the barrier potential across the junctions lowers increasing the flow of electrons from the left to centre to right. For a given illumination on small area large output current is provided by the phototransistor than the photodiode and the photocell. Fig. 1.20.8 shows a relay control circuit using phototransistor. The light incident on the phototransistor Light causes the current to increase. The \ voltage drop across the 20 kQ -~ resistance increases and the relay is energised. The current is raised to Photo transistor operational level. In absence of light current through aa phototransistor is very small. This reduces the voltage drop across the Relay resistance and relay is deenergized. Fi 1.20.5.1 Advantages of Phototransistors : 1. 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 1 1 2. 3, 4. 5. 6. 7. 1 They are small in size. They consume less power. They operate immediately as they are turned on. They require less voltage for their operation. Their operating life is long. They have high gain and are used in digital applications. 20.5.2 Applications of Phototransistors : ‘They are used in linear light meters. For operating relays. In shaft encoders to translate angular motion to digital code. As switching devices for digital circuits. Punch cards. Counting of objects. Pattern recognition. 20.6 Photovoltaic Cell : The photovoltaic cells generate a voltage that is proportional to the el 0 +Vee To controller circuit 1.20.8 : Relay control circuit using phototransistor lectromagnetic radiation intensity. The name photovoltaic is because of the voltage generation characteristic.5.5.4 Magnetic and Photoelectric Pulse Counting eed Transducer. Tachometer M ‘a) Variable reluctance tachometer counting methods) : ° It consists of a toothed rotor mounted on the shag, whose speed is to be measured. + It measures the rpm of a rotating body. It is also g proximity type of instrument. Toothed wheg] ig mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured. . A permanent magnet is placed near the toothed wheel which is made of Ferro magnetic material (mild steel), This material causes variation of flux in the magnetic circuit due to changes in air gap. . The variations of flux produce an emf in the pickup coil. Consequently a voltage is induced in the toil. This is in the form of pulses, The output of the instrument is fed to a pulse counter (electronic counter). The number of counts per second is. Then displayed in the form of a digital readout. A permanent magnet is placed near the toothed rotor. The toothed rotor is made ferromagnetic material which causes variation of flux in the magnetic circuit due to changes in air-gap. The variations of flux, produce an induced em in the pick-up coil. This is in the form of pulsehe output of the instrument is fod to a frequency counter (electronic counter) from which the rpm of the rotor can be determined, _ Pulse/second speed Speed = “Number of tooth This type is frequently used to moasure angular velocity. ie Elootronio counter Permanent magnet (Magnetic pick-up) Coll «— Tooth rotor of ferromagnetic material Fig. 5.5.4 : Variable reluctance tachometer Advantages : @ It is simple and rugged in construction. (i) Negligible maintenance. Gi) Calibration is easy. i) The information from this can a transmitted.