TOP 20 PRINCIPLES

FROM PSYCHOLOGY FOR EARLY

CHILDHOOD TEACHING AND LEARNING
Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education
TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY
FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHING AND LEARNING
COALITION FOR PSYCHOLOGY IN SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION

Contributors APA Staff Sandra Graham, PhD

Kimber Bogard, PhD Rena Subotnik, PhD Robyn Hess, PhD
Lauren Fasig Caldwell, PhD Maha Khalid Randy Kamphaus, PhD
Amanda Clinton, PhD Heather Finster Geesoo Maie Lee
Timothy W. Curby, PhD Lauren Cassini Davi Joan Lucariello, PhD (Chair)
Darlene DeMarie, PhD James Mahalik, PhD
Sarah Elbaum, MA Contributing authors, members Rob McEntarffer, PhD
Roseanne L. Flores , PhD and former members of Coalition John Murray, PhD
Jordan Greenburg, BA for Psychology in Schools and Bonnie Nastasi, PhD
Wendy Grolnick, PhD Education that contributed to the Sam Ortiz, PhD
Benjamin Heddy, PhD original Top 20 Principles from Mary Pitoniak, PhD
Marylou Hyson , PhD Psychology for PreK-12 Teaching Jonathan Plucker, PhD
Jacqueline Jones, PhD and Learning report: Isaac Prilleltensky, PhD
Cara Laitusis, PhD Larry Alferink, PhD Steven Pritzker, PhD
Rochelle Michel, PhD Eric Anderman, PhD Peter Sheras, PhD
Patricia Smiley, PhD Joshua Aronson, PhD Russ Skiba, PhD
Pablo P.L. Tinio, PhD Cynthia Belar, PhD Gary Stoner, PhD
Adam Winsler, PhD Mary Brabeck, PhD Rena Subotnik, PhD
Hardin Coleman, PhD Adam Winsler, PhD
Co-Chairs
Jane Conoley, PhD Jason Young, PhD
Roseanne L. Flores, PhD
Darlene DeMarie, PhD
Darlene DeMarie, PhD
Carol Dwyer, PhD

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https://www.apa.org/ed/schools/teaching-learning/top-
twenty-early-childhood.pdf APA reports synthesize current psychological knowledge
in a given area and may offer recommendations for future
action. They do not constitute APA policy nor commit APA
Suggested bibliographic reference:
to the activities described therein. This particular report
American Psychological Association, Coalition for
originated with the Coalition for Psychology in Schools
Psychology in Schools and Education. (2019). Top 20
and Education, an APA-sponsored group of psychologists
principles from psychology for early childhood teaching and
representing APA divisions and affiliated groups.
learning. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/ed/schools/
teaching-learning/top-twenty-early-childhood.pdf
CONTENTS
TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHING AND LEARNING..............................3

INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................5

METHODOLOGY..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................6

TOP 20 PRINCIPLES..................................................................................................................................................................................................................8

How Do Children Think and Learn?.........................................................................................................................................................................8

What Motivates Children?...........................................................................................................................................................................................20

Why are Social Context, Interpersonal Relationships, and Emotional Well-Being Important to Children’s
Learning?..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................26

How Can the Classroom Best Be Managed?.................................................................................................................................................30

How Can Educators Assess Children’s Progress?......................................................................................................................................33

Contents 1
2
TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY
FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHING AND LEARNING

PRINCIPLE 1 PRINCIPLE 9 PRINCIPLE 15

Children’s beliefs or perceptions Children tend to enjoy learning Emotional well-being influences
about intelligence and ability affect and to do better when they are educational performance, learning,
their cognitive functioning and more intrinsically rather than and development.
learning. extrinsically motivated to achieve.
PRINCIPLE 16
PRINCIPLE 2 PRINCIPLE 10 Expectations for classroom conduct
What children already know affects Children persist in the face of and social interaction are learned
their learning. challenging tasks and process and can be taught using proven
information more deeply when principles of behavior and effective
PRINCIPLE 3 they adopt mastery goals rather classroom instruction.
Children’s cognitive development than performance goals.
and learning are not limited by PRINCIPLE 17
general stages of development. PRINCIPLE 11 Effective classroom management
Teachers’ expectations about is based on (a) setting and
PRINCIPLE 4 their students affect children’s communicating high expectations,
Learning is based on context, opportunities to learn, their (b) consistently nurturing positive
so generalizing learning to new motivation, and their learning relationships, and (c) providing a
contexts is not spontaneous but outcomes. high level of support to children.
instead needs to be facilitated.
PRINCIPLE 12 PRINCIPLE 18
PRINCIPLE 5 Setting goals that are short Formative and summative
Acquiring long-term knowledge term (proximal), specific, and assessments are both important
and skill is largely dependent on moderately challenging enhances and useful but require different
practice. motivation more than establishing approaches and interpretations.
goals that are long term (distal),
PRINCIPLE 6 general, and overly challenging. PRINCIPLE 19
Clear, explanatory, and timely Children’s skills, knowledge, and
feedback to children is important PRINCIPLE 13 abilities are best measured with
for learning. Learning is situated within multiple assessment processes grounded in
social contexts. psychological science with well-
PRINCIPLE 7 defined standards for quality and
Children’s self-regulation assists PRINCIPLE 14 fairness.
learning, and self-regulatory skills Interpersonal relationships and
can be taught. interpersonal communication PRINCIPLE 20
are critical to both the teaching– Making sense of assessment data
PRINCIPLE 8 learning process and the social depends on clear, appropriate, and
Children’s creativity can be development of children. fair interpretation.
fostered.
INTRODUCTION
Psychological science has much to contribute to enhancing teaching and learning in the classroom.
Teaching and learning, in turn, are intricately linked to social and behavioral factors of human
development, including cognition, motivation, social interaction, and communication. Psychological
science also contributes to effective instruction; classroom environments that promote children’s learning;
appropriate use of assessment including data, tests, and measurement; as well as research methods that
inform practice. We present here the most important principles from psychology, the “Top Twenty,” that
would be of greatest use in the context of early childhood teaching and learning as well as applications for
each classroom practice. After the description of each principle, relevant supporting research is provided
followed by a discussion of the principle’s relevance for the classroom.

The authors of this document, the Coalition for Psychology (1997). The Top 20 initiative updates and broadens those
in Schools and Education, and APA generally, has been principles.
putting psychological science to work for pre-collegiate
education for over a decade. Many modules and white This work of identifying and translating psychological
papers for teachers are freely available on the APA website principles was originally developed for use by educators
(http://www.apa.org/ed/schools/cpse/). working with all levels of schooling. Although the Top 20
Principles are applicable for all children and adolescents,
The Coalition is an ideal group for translating psychological research in developmental science supports the especially
science for classroom use. Its members collectively represent rapid development of brain connections during the early
a wide spectrum of sub-disciplines in psychology including: childhood period as well as the central importance of
Evaluation, Measurement, and Statistics; Developmental environmental influences on that development. Therefore,
Psychology; Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative the practices and applications employed during this period,
Psychology; Personality and Social Psychology; the particularly with children from ages 3 to 5, may differ from
Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts; Consulting those employed in later development.
Psychology; Educational Psychology; School Psychology;
Counseling Psychology; Community Psychology; We present here the most important principles from
Psychology of Women; Media Psychology and Technology; psychology - the Top 20 – as identified by the Coalition
Group Psychology and Group Psychotherapy; Psychological for Psychology in Schools and Education that would be of
Study of Culture, Ethnicity, and Race; Psychological Study greatest use in preschool and kindergarten settings. Science
of Men and Masculinity; and Clinical Child, and Adolescent has demonstrated that the early development of cognitive
Psychology. Also involved in the Coalition are psychologists skills as well as emotional well-being are the foundation for
representing affiliated communities of educators and later academic achievement, strong social skills, and adult
scientists, as well as specialists in ethnic minority affairs; development. Although early childhood sites vary from
testing and assessment; teachers of psychology in secondary family child care to community centers to classrooms, the
schools; children, youth, and families; and psychology honor Top 20 Principles can be applied to teaching and learning
societies. Coalition members are employed in K-12 schools in all settings. Most important, young children, like older
and in colleges and universities in education, liberal arts, and children, learn best when the Top 20 principles included
science divisions. Some members are in private practice or in this document are in place and supported by education
have previous experience within early childhood education. directors, administrators, and leaders who oversee the
All of the co-authors hold expertise in psychology’s professional development of early childhood educators.
application to early childhood, elementary, secondary, or We encourage consideration and practice of the Top 20
special education. principles throughout all teacher preparation programs and
the workforce development of early childhood professionals
The Top 20 project was modeled after an earlier effort by to ensure a solid foundation of psychological knowledge be
APA to identify “Learner-Centered Psychological Principles” incorporated in the teaching of young children.

Introduction 5
METHODOLOGY
The method to derive the original “Top Twenty” principles was as follows. First, the Coalition, operating
in the mode of an NIH Consensus Panel, engaged in a series of thought exercises where each member
identified two constructs or “kernels” (Embry & Biglan, 2008) from psychology thought to be most
essential for facilitating successful classroom teaching and learning. This process led to the identification
of approximately 45 kernels/principles.

Next, a series of steps was taken to categorize, validate, and scores, low priority principles were discarded leaving 22
consolidate these principles. The first step was to cluster principles. These were then analyzed for their relation to
the 45 principles according to key domains of classroom each other and were synthesized into the final 20 presented
application (e.g., How do children think and learn?) here.1
followed by an iterative process across several meetings
of the Coalition. Second, the Coalition established a These “Top Twenty” were then placed into five areas of
validation procedure for the 45 principles that involved psychological functioning. The first eight (1-8) relate to
analyzing several national blueprint publications related cognition and learning and address the question of, “How
to teaching so as to assess whether each of the principles do students think and learn?” The next four principles
was identified by the broader community of educators as (9-12) discuss motivation and address the question, “What
critical to teacher practice. These documents included APA’s motivates students?” The following three (13-15) pertain
Standards for High School Curriculum in Psychology, the to the social context and emotional dimensions that affect
PRAXIS Principles of Learning and Teaching examination learning and address the query, “Why are social context,
from the Educational Testing Service, documents from the interpersonal relationships, and emotional well-being
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education important to student learning?” The next two principles
(NCATE), InTASC (The Interstate Teacher Assessment and (16-17) relate to how context can affect learning and address
Support Consortium) Standards, a popular educational the query, “How can the classroom best be managed?”
psychology textbook, and the National Association of Finally, the last three principles (18-20) discuss assessment
School Psychologist’s Blueprint for Training and Practice. and address the question, “How can teachers assess a
student's progress?”
The next step was to use a modified Delphi process
(modeled after a 2004 report from the Institute of Medicine To support the needs of the early childhood community, a
entitled, Improving Medical Education: Enhancing the panel with expertise in psychology and early childhood
Behavioral and Social Science Content of Medical School education then translated each principle for early childhood
Curricula) to identify the most important of the 45 and incorporated relevant evidence on early childhood
principles/kernels. Coalition members rated each of the education practices, resulting in this document.
principles using a scale system and assigned each a high,
medium, or low priority score (1-3). Based on the mean

6 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. Woolfolk, A. (2013). Educational Psychology, Old Tappan,
2015. Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR.
through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation. Washing- Ysseldyke, J., Burns, M., Dawson, P., Kelley, B., Morrison,
ton, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi. D., Ortiz, S., Rosenfield, S., & Telzrow, C. (2006). School
org/10.17226/19401. psychology: A blueprint for training and practice III.
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Retrieved from the National Association of School Psy-
(2007). The science of early childhood development chologists’ website: http://www.nasponline.org/resourc-
(2007). https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resourcecat- es/blueprint/finalblueprintinteriors.pdf
egory/reports-and-working-papers/ Zinkiewicz, L., Hammond, N., & Trapp, A. (2003). Apply-
ing psychology disciplinary knowledge to psychology
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 201 teaching and learning: A review of selected psycholog-
American Psychological Association, Learner-Centered ical research and theory with implications for teaching
Principles Work Group. (1997). Learner-centered psy- practice. York, UK: University of York
chological principles: A framework for school reform
and design. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ed/gov-
ernance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
Benassi, V.A., Overson, C.E., & Hakala, C.M. (Eds.) (2014).
Applying the science of learning in education: Infusing
psychological science into the curriculum. Retrieved
from the Society for the Teaching of Psychology website:
http://teachpsych.org/ebooks/asle2014;index.php
Council of Chief State School Officer’s Interstate Teacher
Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC). (2011).
Model core teaching standards: A resource for state dia-
logue. Retrieved from InTASC website: http://www.ccsso.
org/Documents/2011/InTASC_Model_Core_Teach-
ing_Standards_2011.pdf
Cuff, P.A., & Vanselow, N.A. (Eds.) (2004). Enhancing the
behavioral and social sciences in medical school curric-
ula. Washington DC: The National Academies Press.
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J., &
Willingham, D.T. (2013). Improving students’ learning
with effective learning techniques: Promising directions
form cognitive and educational psychology. Psychologi-
cal Science in the Public Interest, 14, 4-58.
Embry, D. D., & Biglan, A. (2008). Evidence-based kernels:
Fundamental united of behavioral influence. Clinical
Child and Family Psychology Review, 11(3), 75-113.
Roediger, H.L. (2013). Applying cognitive psychology to
education: Translational education science. Psychologi-
cal Science in the Public Interest, 14, 1-3.
Whitlock, K. H., Fineburg, A. C., Freeman, J. E., & Smith,
M. T. (2005). National standards for high school psychol-
ogy curricula. Retrieved from APA’s policy website: http://
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1 “Original Top 20” refers to the Top 20 Principles from Psychology for
Prek-12 Teaching and Learning available at https://www.apa.org/ed/schools/
teaching-learning/top-twenty-principles.pdf

Methodology 7
TOP 20 PRINCIPLES

How do Children
Think and Learn?

from negative feedback and failure and may even see these
PRINCIPLE 1 Children’s beliefs or
setbacks as opportunities for learning.
perceptions about intelligence and
Fostering a growth mindset can be framed in terms of
ability affect their cognitive functioning attributions teachers assign to children’s performance. When
and learning. children experience failure, they may wonder “Why?” The
answer to that question is what is called a causal attribution.
Attributions that tend to blame one’s ability (“I failed
EXPLANATION because I’m just not smart enough”) are associated with
the view that intelligence is fixed. In contrast, attributions
Children develop beliefs about intelligence. Some children that blame lack of effort (“I failed because I didn’t try hard
learn that intelligence is a fixed trait or an “entity.” That enough”) or the use of an inappropriate strategy generally
is, people have a certain amount of intelligence, and this reflect a growth or incremental view of intelligence.
amount does not change. This perception of intelligence is Attributing a child’s poor performance to controllable and
labeled as a “fixed” or an “entity mindset.” Other children modifiable causes, such as lack of effort or the poor choice
believe that intelligence is malleable or changeable, a of a strategy, gives children the expectation or hope that
“growth” or “incremental mindset,” and that with effort, things can be different in the future.
practice, and better strategies they can become smarter.
Children’s mindsets may vary by situation or context and
may be affected by cultural differences. RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATORS
There are educational implications for each of these
mindsets. Children who have a fixed mindset tend to Teachers can foster children’s beliefs that their
focus on their performance, thinking that those who can intelligence and ability can be developed through effort
do tasks quickly are more intelligent than those who take and exercising various strategies:
their time. These children may want to demonstrate and
• In addition to academic tasks with multiple approaches,
prove their intelligence, and to look smart in others’ eyes.
teachers should provide young children with different
These children are subsequently more reluctant to take on
types of play opportunities that help them learn to
challenges and are more resistant to constructive feedback.
solve problems in different ways. For example, children
In contrast, children with a growth mindset are generally
who try to build a very tall tower with building blocks
more willing to engage in challenging tasks that test and
probably will encounter failure at some point. However,
expand their intelligence. Hence, they rebound more easily
when challenged to see if they can figure out a different
way of building that will result in a taller tower, those

8 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

 same children may persist with numerous attempts. skills for tasks that are easy for them, this praise may
When a child is successful at building a taller tower, the undermine those children’s motivation and success in
teacher can point out the change in strategy that made the future. This praise suggests a child does not have the
that tower taller (e.g., the child made a larger base to ability to succeed at a more difficult task (e.g., “Why is
hold the taller blocks) and can praise the child’s effort my teacher praising me for getting these easy problems
and persistence in trying different ways to build a taller right?”). Likewise, unsolicited assistance and sympathy
structure. Giving specific praise (e.g., “You found a new may communicate the teacher’s belief that the child does
way to stack the blocks!” or “You worked hard to figure not have the ability to be successful.
out the best answer”) is better than giving only general
• Teachers should monitor situations in which children
praise (e.g., “Good job” or “That’s right.”). (See principle
expend minimal, modest, or incomplete effort when
6)
presenting children with challenging materials and
• Teachers should give children tasks that provide them tasks. This self-handicapping may reflect a child’s fear
with some challenge. Solely giving young children tasks of embarrassment or failure (“If I don’t even try, people
that have single answers and can be completed quickly will not think I’m dumb if I fail”).
will not help them to pursue more complex tasks in the
future. Instead, teachers should give children tasks that To be clear, we are not suggesting that teachers should
elicit multiple approaches for solving them. This helps never praise or help children, or that they should always
children to learn to approach problems using different express disappointment (rather than sympathy) or offer
strategies or methods. constructive criticism (rather than compliments). The
appropriateness of any feedback will depend on many
• When given a choice of tasks, children with a “fixed”
factors based on teacher judgment of the situation. Children
mindset generally choose the tasks that they perceive
come to school with mindsets and ideas about intelligence
to be the easiest. They may want to show through their
that may be the result of parents’ feedback or past
quick performance that they are “smart.” Consequently,
interactions with teachers or caregivers that do not manifest
these children may not learn as much in the long-
exclusively from classroom interactions. The general
term, because they may tend to avoid tasks that are
message is that attribution principles help to explain how
challenging. This phenomenon is likely to occur during
some well-intentioned teacher or parent behaviors may have
school transitions (e.g., pre-K to Kindergarten). Thus,
unexpected, or even negative, effects on children’s beliefs
teachers should be aware of choices children make
about their own abilities. Additionally, recent research
and encourage each child to pursue experiences that
suggests that mindset related educational interventions are
challenge them (e.g., working harder to get smarter).
particularly effective in special populations such as children
• Teachers can recognize children’s improvement in their who are at risk academically.
performance over time. In early childhood settings, a
teacher can reframe a challenge to help children see their
progress rather than their immediate ability to meet a REFERENCES FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
performance benchmark. For example, if children are Cimpian, A., Hammond, M. D., Mazza, G., Corry, G.
expected to identify all letters of the alphabet, instead (2017). Young children’s self-concepts include repre-
of testing children on letters in isolation and indicating sentations of abstract traits and the global self. Child
whether they are correct or incorrect, the teacher could Development, 88, 1786-1798. doi:10.1111/cdev.12925
keep records of children’s letter naming in natural Cimpian, A., & Erickson, L. (2012). The effect of generic
classroom contexts over time. The mastery goal would statements on children's causal attributions: Questions
be framed as “Last time, you found 5 letters you could of mechanism. Developmental Psychology, 48, 159-170.
name. Let’s see if you can find 6 letters you know this doi:10.1037/a0025274
time.” (See principle 10) Gallinsky, E. (2010). Skill six: Taking on challenges. In E.
• Teachers should be careful not to give indirect and Gallinsky, Mind in the making: The seven essential life
subtle cues about low ability (see principle 11). They skills every child needs (Ch. 6, pp. 248-297). New York,
can unintentionally communicate a child’s low ability NY: HarperCollins.
when they attempt to protect the self-esteem of children Gunderson, E. A., Gripshover, S. J., Romero, C., Dweck, C.
who are less secure about their ability. For example, S., Goldin-Meadow, S., & Levine, S. C. (2013). Parent
if teachers praise children who have lower academic praise to 1- to 3-year-olds predicts children’s motiva-

How do Children Think and Learn? 9

 tional frameworks 5 years later. Child Development, 84, PRINCIPLE 2 What children already
1526-1541. doi:10.1111/cdev.12064
Sisk, V. F., Burgoyne, A. P., Sun, J., Butler, J. L., & Mac- know affects their learning.
namara, B. N. (2018). To what extent and under which
circumstances are growth mind-sets important to aca-
demic achievement? Two meta-analyses. Psychological
EXPLANATION
Science, 29, 549-571. Children bring their previous knowledge and experiences
into their early childhood classrooms. Previous knowledge
is a result of children’s everyday experiences at home, in
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20 childcare settings, in their community, or from social
Aronson, J., Fried, C., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the interactions with their family or friends. Prior knowledge
effects of stereotype threat on African American influences how young children incorporate new knowledge
college students by shaping theories of intelligence. and what they learn from new experiences. Accordingly,
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113–125. learning consists of either adding to existing knowledge,
doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1491 which is known as conceptual growth; or transforming
Aronson, J., & Juarez, L. (2012). Growth mindsets in the or revising knowledge, known as conceptual change.
laboratory and the real world. In R. F. Subotnik, A. Rob- Conceptual growth occurs when children’s previous
inson, C. M. Callahan, & E. J. Gubbins (Eds.), Malleable knowledge is consistent with new knowledge. In this case,
minds: Translating insights from psychology and neurosci- children simply incorporate additional knowledge about
ence to gifted education (pp. 19–36). Storrs, CT: National the topic into their existing understanding. Conceptual
Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. change is required when children must transform or revise
Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). previous knowledge because what they already know is
Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement not consistent with new information, or when children’s
across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study prior knowledge is erroneous. This might occur because
and an intervention. Child Development, 78, 246–263. children have misconceptions or false beliefs about how
doi:10.1111/j.1467- 8624.2007.00995.x things work in the world. Conceptual growth is far easier
Dweck, C. S. (2017). The journey to children’s mindsets than conceptual change. Many common misconceptions are
--- and beyond. Child Development Perspectives, 11, 139- held by both children and adults, particularly in areas such
144. doi:10.1111/cdep.12225 as mathematics and science. It is imperative for children
Good, C., Aronson, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2003). Improving to experience conceptual change for concepts that are
adolescents’ standardized test performance: An inter- misunderstood, but misconceptions can be particularly
vention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Journal resistant to change. Understanding children’s knowledge
of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 645–662. doi. about a topic – including misconceptions – can help
org/10.1016 /j.appdev.2003.09.002 teachers to plan instruction.

RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATORS
Teachers can be instrumental in achieving both conceptual
growth and conceptual change in children.
• Teachers should assess children’s current level of
knowledge and previous experience (i.e., conduct
“formative assessment” (see Principle 18) before they
begin teaching a topic. Examples can include the
following: 1) asking young children to draw a picture
that shows what they know about the topic; 2) having
each child tell something about the topic while writing
what each child said on chart paper; 3) having a whole

10 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

 group discussion about the topic; or 4) having a child REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
demonstrate a procedure to the class.
Eryilmaz, A. (2002). Effects of conceptual assignments and
• When young children do not have sufficient first-hand conceptual change discussions on students’ miscon-
or background knowledge about a topic, teachers should ceptions and achievement regarding force and motion.
provide activities that present background information Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 1001–1015.
before they teach new information. For example, if doi.org/10.1002/tea.10054
children are supposed to learn about plant growth, it Holding, M., Denton, R., Kulesza, A., & Ridgway, J. (2014).
may be important for children to plant flowers (or Confronting scientific misconceptions by fostering a
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relevant experience) and to observe their growth over American Biology Teacher, 76, 518–523.
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memorable. Pashler, H., Bain, P. M., Bottge, B. A., Graesser, A.,
• Teachers can have children play an active role in Koedinger, K. R., McDaniel, M., & Metcalfe, J. (2007).
predicting outcomes or solutions and then show Organizing instruction and study to improve student
the actual results. This is especially important if the learning (NCER 2007-2004). Washington, DC: U.S. De-
children’s predictions are faulty. For example, in a read- partment of Education, Institute of Education Sciences,
aloud, the teacher might ask children, “What do you National Center for Education Research. Retrieved from
think will happen next?” and “Why do you think that http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/practiceguide.aspx?sid=1
might happen?” Savinainen, A., & Scott, P. (2002). The Force Concept In-
ventory: A tool for monitoring student learning. Physics
• Teachers can present children with credible information Education, 37, 45–52.
or data that run counter to their misconceptions. For
example, if a child has a misconception about the shape
of the Earth (e.g., it has an edge and people can fall off
it), depending on children’s ages, teachers can provide
PRINCIPLE 3 Children’s cognitive
physical evidence (e.g., a globe) to correct the child’s
misconception or visit a planetarium exhibit on the solar development and learning are not
system. limited by general stages of
development.
EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (2000). From neurons to EXPLANATION
neighborhoods: The science of early childhood develop-
ment. National Academy of Sciences National Research Children’s reasoning is not limited or determined by
Council, Washington, DC. underlying stages of cognitive development. That is, stages
Schneider, W. (2015). Memory development from early of development are not linked to a particular age or grade
childhood through emerging adulthood. Springer: Swit- level. Historically, many people have identified development
zerland. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-09611-7 as progressing through a number of fixed stages and
Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. F. (1992). Mental models of at fixed ages. For example, theories have proposed that
the earth: A study of conceptual change in childhood. preschool children have difficulty taking the perspective
Cognitive Psychology, 24(4), 535-585. of others while elementary aged children do not have this
difficulty. However, researchers generally find that these
developmental stages are more descriptive about the ability
to demonstrate these skills rather than how the skills
themselves transform through stages. For example, although

How do Children Think and Learn? 11

preschool aged children have more difficulty taking of knowing or reasoning.2 In designing instruction, teachers
the perspective of others, they can learn to take others’ can facilitate children’s reasoning in the following ways:
perspectives with assistance.
• Teachers should encourage children’s reasoning in
knowledge domains and contexts where they already
Contextualist approaches to cognitive development and
have knowledge and interest. For example, a child who
learning describe how context affects cognition. Children’s
is very interested and familiar with dinosaurs may be
reasoning can be facilitated to more advanced levels when
able to sort, classify, and tell a great number of facts
they interact with more capable others and/or with more
about many different dinosaurs. That same child may
advanced materials. This strategy is especially effective
not have any familiarity with plants, and it may not be
when materials are pitched neither too near nor too far
possible for him or her to do the same activities with
from children’s current level of functioning. This principle is
different types of plants.
captured in what is called the Zone of Proximal Development
– tasks that a child can achieve with questions or other • Although children generally reason better when
support. Contextualist approaches also support the idea that dealing with highly familiar topics, their reasoning can
cognition can be “situated.” That is, learning is conceived as be enhanced in less familiar arenas when presented
participation in communities, with children progressively with topics and domains pitched just beyond their
acquiring situated actions. For example, in some societies, current level of functioning. The perfect level of entry
children learn to farm, acquire a craft, or absorb how to for new material is providing information that is not
adapt to societal expectations. too elementary to be easily understood and not too
complex to be out-of-range of understanding even with
In sum, children are capable of higher-level thinking and assistance. For example, if children already can tell the
behavior when: order of activities in the classroom day, a teacher could
then ask them think about how similar sequencing
• There is some biological base (early competency) for
applies to story book reading. Children’s reasoning can
knowledge in the domain,
also be facilitated by familiarizing them with the culture
• They already have some familiarity or expertise with a of classrooms and schooling practices. Although not all
knowledge domain, classroom activities can be approached by relying on
peer collaboration, when possible this approach can help
• They interact with more capable others or with
children whose background experiences make them
challenging materials, and
unfamiliar with schooling and classroom practices in
• They are in sociocultural contexts from which they the United States. These children may need an assigned
become familiar with that topic through experience. “buddy” to help them to navigate the culture of school.
• Placing children in mixed-ability groups for learning
Conversely, when children are not familiar with particular
allows for interaction with children who have different
knowledge in a domain, are not challenged by the
abilities and problem-solving approaches. This is also
interpersonal context or learning materials, or are in a
an important rationale for inclusive early childhood
context for learning that is too unfamiliar to them, their
education—that is, including children with and without
reasoning may be less sophisticated.
disabilities in the same classroom. Children already
at very high-levels of functioning should also be
RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD stimulated to even higher levels by interacting with still
EDUCATORS more advanced peers or with instructors and by use of
advanced learning materials.
Children come into early childhood settings with different
skills, backgrounds, and prior knowledge. It is important
that teachers assess what children already know and how EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
familiar the children are with the context of the information
Bjorklund, D. F. (1997). In Search of a Metatheory for Cog-
or skill before proceeding with instruction. Children’s
nitive Development (or, Piaget Is Dead and I Don't Feel
prior knowledge can help to determine which instructional
experiences might be appropriate and relevant, but age is
not the main or sole determiner of what a child is capable
2 See also http://www.apa.org/education/k12/brain-function.aspx

12 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

 So Good Myself). Child Development, 68(1), 144-148. Children’s ability to transfer learning is an important
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01932.x indicator of the quality of their learning – its depth,
Bjorklund, D. F. (2018). Commentary: A Metatheory for adaptability, and flexibility.
Cognitive Development (or “Piaget is Dead” Revisit-
ed). Child Development, 89(6), 2288-2302. https://doi.
org/10.1111/cdev.13019 RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
Flavell, J. H., Miller, P. H., & Miller, S. A. (1985). Cognitive EDUCATORS
development (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. In early childhood, children learn in a variety of contexts.
The challenge is for teachers to provide children with
opportunities to transfer their knowledge and form
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
connections across different contexts – from highly similar
Bjorklund, D. F. (2012), Children's thinking: Cognitive de- to highly dissimilar contexts. This can be achieved by the
velopment and individual differences (5th ed.). Belmont, following:
CA: Wadsworth.
• Asking children to make connections between what
Donaldson, M. (1978). Children’s minds. W. W. Norton and
they learn at school and their lives at home. “When your
Company: New York.
family buys food, how do you use numbers?” “Where
Mayer, R. (2008). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle
have you seen letters on your way to school?”
River, NJ: Pearson.
Miller, P. H. (2011). Theories of developmental psychology • Helping children see the application of their knowledge
(5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. to the real world (e.g., using addition and subtraction to
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human develop- understand the cost of purchases in stores) or assisting
ment. New York: Oxford. them in transferring real-world knowledge when
trying to understand academic principles. Teachers can
help children to generalize/apply their knowledge by
regularly providing real-life instances of the academic
PRINCIPLE 4 Learning is based on behaviors in which they are engaged.

context, so generalizing learning to • Identifying and building on strengths and experiences

that children bring to a learning situation. One way to
new contexts is not spontaneous but do this would be by taking a walk to a relevant place and
instead needs to be facilitated. asking questions about surroundings. For example, ask
children what questions they would want to ask a person
working at a local grocery store.
EXPLANATION
Learning occurs within multiple contexts. These contexts EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
can focus on one of several domains of learning such
as cognitive domains (e.g., mathematics development Chen, J., & McNamee, G. (2011). Positive approaches to
and scientific reasoning), visual-spatial domains (e.g., learning in the context of preschool classroom activities.
pattern recognition, eye-hand coordination), or social Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(1), 71-78.
domains, including relationships with adults and other Colliver, Y., & Fleer, M. (2016). ‘I already know what
children (e.g., caretaking routines between a parent and I learned’: Young children's perspectives on learn-
child, interactions between children during free play). ing through play. Early Child Development and
Children do not automatically transfer or generalize Care, 186(10), 1559-1570. doi:10.1080/03004430
their knowledge from one context or situation to new .2015.1111880 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
contexts or situations. In fact, the more dissimilar abs/10.1080/03004430.2015.1111880?journalCode=g-
the new context is from the original learning context, ecd20
the more difficulty children will experience. Deeper Moreno, A. J., Shwayder, I., & Friedman, I. D. (2017). The
understanding of concepts results from adapting skills and function of executive function: Everyday manifestations
content to new contexts. Most notably, transfer skills can be of regulated thinking in preschool settings. Early Child-
learned through encouragement and support from teachers.

How do Children Think and Learn? 13

 hood Education Journal, 45(2), 143-153. doi:10.1007/ when children use different strategies, and practice is key to
s10643-016-0777-y this transfer process.3
http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/SmartLink/OpenE-
jsSmartLink?sid=0ab88d92-f675-4ec9-8445-f267d08b- Studies comparing the performance of experts and novices
1cb9@sessionmgr4006&vid=26 have shown important distinctions between purposeful
Timmons, K., Pelletier, J., & Corter, C. (2016). Understand- practice and other activities, such as play or “drill and kill”
ing children's self-regulation within different classroom repetition. Rote repetition—simply repeating a task—does
contexts. Early Child Development and Care, 186(2), very little by itself to improve performance or long-term
249-267. doi: 10.1080/03004430.2015.1027699 retention of content. Instead, purposeful practice involves
attention, rehearsal, and repetition over time and leads to
new knowledge or skills that can later be developed into
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20 more complex knowledge and skills.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. (Eds). (2000).
How people learn. Washington, DC: National Academies Overall, there are at least five ways learning is improved
Press. through rehearsal and deliberate practice. Evidence
Mayer, R. (2008). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle demonstrates that: (a) the likelihood that learning will be
River, NJ: Pearson. long term and retrievable is increased, (b) children’s ability
Saxe, G. B. (1991). Culture and cognitive development: to apply elements of knowledge automatically and without
Studies in mathematical understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: reflection is enhanced, (c) skills that become automatic
Erlbaum. free up children’s cognitive resources for learning more
Sousa, D. A. (2011). How the brain learns (4th ed.). Thou- challenging tasks, (d) transfer of practiced skills to new and
sand Oaks, CA: Corwin. more complex problems is increased, and (e) gains often
bring about motivation for more learning.

RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD

PRINCIPLE 5 Acquiring long- EDUCATORS
term knowledge and skill is largely Engaging children in practice can be elicited and
dependent on practice. encouraged in a variety of ways. Because practice requires
intense, focused effort, children may not find it inherently
enjoyable; therefore, teachers need to encourage children
EXPLANATION to practice by pointing out that expending effort leads to
improved performance.
What children know (their knowledge base) is etched into
long-term memory. Most information, particularly when
Teachers can help support and motivate children to engage
related to school-based knowledge and highly skilled
in practice by expressing confidence in their ability to do
activities (e.g., such as learning to play a musical instrument
well at solving problems. For example, they can scaffold
or produce patterns of shapes), must be processed in some
activities that maximize children’s opportunities to succeed.
way before being stored in long-term memory. At any
Unrealistic or poorly designed classroom challenges may
given moment, children are surrounded by an enormous
lead to frustration and decrease children’s motivation to
amount of information. They will not process most of
learn. Practicing routine events across multiple contexts
the information, because they attend and process some
provides children with the opportunity to generalize
information with a limited-capacity memory storage area
knowledge and ensures long-term retention (see Principle
known as short-term or working memory. To be retained
4). Some examples that early childhood educators can use
more permanently, information must be transferred into
to ensure the acquisition of long-term knowledge are as
long-term memory, which, by definition, is of relatively
follows:
long duration (e.g., decades), has very large capacity, and
is highly organized (e.g., categorized). The transfer of • Rote learning experiences can be incorporated into
information from short-term to long-term memory occurs everyday activities such as transitions. For example,

3 See also http://www.apa.org/education/k12/practice-acquisition.aspx

14 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

 singing a song about a transition activity while Child Development and Early Learning. Available from:
performing those activities can help children engage in https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310550/
the transition activities more easily. (e.g., “Wash your National Center on Early Childhood Development, Teach-
hands before you eat; wash your hands; wash your hands. ing, and Learning (nd). The science of child develop-
Wash your hands before you eat. Wash your hands.” ment and learning. Retrieved from https://eclkc.ohs.acf.
hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/science-child-deveop-
• Teachers should support young children’s learning in
ment-learning.pdf.
multiple contexts whenever possible, not just in the
Vitiello, V. E., & Greenfield, D. B. (2017). Executive func-
classroom. For example, to strengthen letter knowledge,
tions and approaches to learning in predicting school
a teacher might point out different objects that all
readiness. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,
begin with the same letter during a neighborhood walk
53, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.08.004
(bus, birds, bench) and ask with which letter they all
begin. Or, if children are learning about transportation,
teachers could go on walks with children and have them REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
identify all the different modes of transportation they
see and discuss what they notice. Campitelli, G., & Gobet, F. (2011). Deliberate prac-
tice: Necessary but not sufficient. Current Di-
• To practice understanding shapes and patterns, teachers rections in Psychological Science, 20(5), 280–285.
could use pattern cards that need to be put in sequence. doi:10.1177/096372141142922
Children can be asked to extend a pattern or series by Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., &
asking what shape would follow the last shape shown Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learn-
on the card. Or in group activities, teachers could work ing with effective learning techniques: Promising
with children using different toys that children enjoy directions from cognitive and educational psychology.
and use often in different activities (for example, colored Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14, 4–58.
pegs) to create their own patterns and have them explain doi.10.1177/1529100612453266
the pattern they’ve created. Roediger, H. L. (2013). Applying cognitive psychol-
• When teachers go over the days of the week using a song ogy to education: Translational education science.
or other mnemonic with children, a teacher could ask, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14, 1–3.
“If yesterday was Tuesday, what day is it today?” While doi.10.1177/1529100612454415
singing the days of the week song is rote repetition, Rosenshine, B., & Meister, C. (1992). The use of scaffolds
children will have to think back to the song when trying for teaching higher-level cognitive strategies. Education-
to figure out the current day. This can occur regularly. al Leadership, 49(7), 26–33.
Simkins, S. P., & Maier, M. H. (2008). Just-in-time teaching:
• Teachers could use music and movement activities to
Across the disciplines, across the academy. Sterling VA:
help children acquire long-term knowledge through songs,
Stylus.
which physically engage children. For example, a teacher
van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kester, L.
might have children learn about and remember parts
(2003). Taking the load off a learner’s mind: Instruction-
of their body as well as different movements by playing,
al design for complex learning. Educational Psychologist,
“The Beanbag Boogie,” which instructs children where to
38, 5–13. doi:10.1207 /s15326985EP3801_2
place their individual bean bag without letting it fall and
incorporates movements such as jumping and stomping.

EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES PRINCIPLE 6 Clear, explanatory, and

Committee on the Science of Children Birth to Age 8: timely feedback is important for learning.
Deepening and Broadening the Foundation for Success;
Board on Children, Youth, and Families; Institute of
Medicine; National Research Council; Allen LR, Kelly EXPLANATION
BB, editors. Transforming the Workforce or Children Learning can increase when children receive regular,
Birth Through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation. Washing- specific, explanatory, and timely feedback on their work.
ton (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2015 Jul 23. 4, Feedback that is occasional and perfunctory (e.g., saying

How do Children Think and Learn? 15

‘good job’) is neither clear nor explanatory and does not Conroy, M. A., Sutherland, K. S., Snyder, A., Al-Hendawi,
increase children's motivation or understanding. Clear M., & Vo, A. (2009). Creating a Positive Classroom At-
learning goals help to increase the effectiveness of feedback mosphere: Teachers' Use of Effective Praise and Feed-
to children because the comments can tie directly to the back. Beyond Behavior, 18(2), 18-26.
goals, and regular feedback prevents children from getting Hintz, R., & Driscoll, A. (1988). Praise or encouragement?
off track in their learning. New insights into praise: Implications for early child-
hood teachers. Young Children, 16, 6-13.
Kohn, A. (2001). Five Reasons to Stop Saying" Good Job".
RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD Young Children, 56(5), 24-30.
EDUCATORS Lam, S. F., Yim, P. S., & Ng, Y. L. (2008). Is effort praise
The feedback that teachers offer can be most effective when motivational? The role of beliefs in the effort–ability re-
it provides children with specific information about their lationship. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33(4),
current state of knowledge and performance as related to 694-710.
learning goals. Providing feedback in a timely way (e.g., as
quickly as possible after an activity) assists learning and is
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
usually more effective than providing delayed feedback. For
example: Brookhart, S. M. (2008). How to give effective feedback to
your students. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervi-
• Teachers can provide feedback to children incorporating
sion and Curriculum Development.
earlier learning with current learning goals. For example,
Ericsson, A. K., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993).
rather than general remarks such as “Good job,” or “You
The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of ex-
seem to be struggling,” teachers can make more directed
pert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363-406.
comments, such as “To cut along the line, you’re going
Gobet, F., & Campitelli, G. (2007). The role of domain-spe-
to need to have the scissors open wider and cut more
cific practice, handedness, and starting age in chess.
slowly.”
Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 159-172.
• Feedback affects motivation (see Principle 11). Children Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005,
tend to respond better if feedback minimizes negativity November). Classroom assessment, minute by minute,
and focuses on what they might wish to change. For day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19-24.
example, when a child cuts out a shape and the scissors Minstrell, J. (2001). The role of the teacher in making sense
no longer are cutting on the line of that shape, the of classroom experiences and effecting better learn-
teacher might point to the place where the child had ing. In Carver, S. M., & Klahr, D. (Eds.) Cognition and
been cutting on the line and encourage the child to hold instruction: Twenty-five years of progress (pp. 121-150).
the scissors the same way for cutting out the rest of the Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
shape.
• When children are learning a new task or struggling
with an existing one, frequent praise following small
degrees of improvement is very important, and when PRINCIPLE 7 Children’s self-
progress is evident, encouragement to persist can regulation assists learning, and
matter a great deal. Targeted feedback can also motivate
children to continue practicing a new skill (see Principle self-regulatory skills can be taught.
5, and also see Using Classroom Data to Give Systematic
Feedback to Students to Improve Learning http://www.
apa.org/education/k12/classroom-data.aspx). EXPLANATION
Self-regulation refers to sets of skills that facilitate goal-
directed behavior including the ability to inhibit impulsive
EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES behavior, control one’s emotions, and solve problems. It is
Burnett, P. C. (2002). Teacher praise and feedback and often conceptualized as encompassing executive function
students' perceptions of the classroom environment. skills including attending to what’s relevant (e.g., the
Educational psychology, 22(1), 5-16. teacher reading a book) and ignoring what’s not relevant
at that time (e.g., the assistant teacher preparing lunch at

16 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

the back of the room). In the early childhood classroom, • Preschool children’s executive function skills can also be
self-regulatory skills allow children to pay attention to the enhanced through mindfulness practices, such as deep
teacher, follow directions, and manage behavior so they can breathing, focused listening and attention, and body/
learn. These skills can be taught or enhanced, specifically emotion self-monitoring and self-awareness exercises.
through direct instruction, modeling, support, and
• Friendly, warm, and positive teacher-child interactions
classroom organization and structure. Children who show
and strong emotional connections between teachers
more of these skills at the end of preschool tend to do better
and children improve children’s behavioral control
in school later on.
in preschool, especially for those entering preschool
with poor regulatory skills. An organized classroom
environment with clear, consistent expectations, rules,
RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
and routines can also help enhance children’ self-
EDUCATORS
regulation.4
Although these skills develop naturally to some extent
during the preschool years, early childhood educators play
a role in helping children to acquire them. The classroom EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
environment can be organized to enhance self-regulation.
Ackerman, D.J., & Friedman-Krauss, A.H. (2017). Pre-
Some researchers have compared self-regulation to a muscle,
schoolers’ executive function: Importance, contributors,
which can become tired with use, but with practice can
research needs and assessment options. ETS Research
also get stronger over time. Researchers have identified
Report Series, 2017(1), 1–24. doi: 10.1002/ets2.12148
several ways that teachers can promote self-regulation and
Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University
executive functioning skills in children:
(2014). Enhancing and practicing executive function skills
• The words we use to guide children’s behavior are with children from infancy to adolescence. Retrieved
important. Giving children some autonomy and from: https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/ac-
including them in decision-making about their behavior tivities-guide-enhancing-and-practicing-executive-func-
(e.g., “Do you want to pick up the blocks or wash the tion-skills-with-children-from-infancy-to-adolescence/
paint brushes?”) is better for promoting executive Choi, J. Y., Castle, S., Williamson, A. C., Young, E., Wor-
functioning than just giving children explicit directions ley, L., Long, M., & Horm, D. M. (2016). Teacher–child
(e.g., “Pick up the blocks.”). When teachers engage interactions and the development of executive function
children in challenging, goal-directed activities that in preschool-age children attending Head Start. Ear-
are fun (e.g., completing a puzzle), they can ask them ly Education and Development, 27(6), 751–769. doi:
leading questions (e.g., “Should we start at the top or 10.1080/10409289.2016.1129864
the bottom?” “Which piece do you think goes there?”) Jones, S. M., Bailey, R., Barnes, S. P., & Partee, A. (2016).
rather than only telling them what to do. Executive function napping project: Untangling the
terms and skills related to executive function and self-reg-
• Giving children practice modulating their motor
ulation in early childhood. OPRE Report # 2016-88,
behavior through song and dance helps to build the self-
Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Eval-
regulatory “muscle.” For example, games synchronized
uation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S.
with music and others moving in the same way (e.g.,
Department of Health and Human Services.
stop–go, high–low, fast–slow, loud–soft) helps to build
McClelland, M. M., Acock, A. C., Piccinin, A., Rhea, S. A.,
executive function skills in young children. More
& Stallings, M. C. (2013). Relations between preschool
generally, play that involves moderate to vigorous
attention span-persistence and age 25 educational
physical activity (e.g., outside recess) is also associated
outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(2),
with increases in children’s self-regulation.
314–324. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.07.008
• When children engage in pretend play (e.g., playing McCoy, D. C. (2019). Measuring young children’s executive
doctor or chef), the role they take on places rules and function and self-regulation in classrooms and other
limits on their behavior – what they can and cannot do real-world settings. Clinical Child and Family Psychology
or say. Conforming to such rules gives children practice Review, 22, 63–74 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-
regulating their behavior. This helps them develop their 00285-1
executive function skills.
4 See also https://www.apa.org/education/k12/relationships

How do Children Think and Learn? 17

Rice, M. (2012). Understanding the importance of self-reg- or even frivolous, yet extensive research provides evidence
ulation for preschoolers. Available at: http://www. that creativity and innovation are the result of nurtured
ttacnews.vcu.edu/2012/02/understanding-the-impor- thinking. Notably, creative thought is sometimes seen
tance-of-self-regulation-for-preschoolers/ as disruptive to classroom functioning because it can be
Rosanbalm, K.D., & Murray, D.W. (2017). Promoting viewed as unsettling rules of convention.
self-regulation in early childhood: A practice brief.
OPRE Brief #2017-79. Washington, DC: Office of Contrary to the conventional wisdom that creativity is
Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for a stable trait (you either have it or you don’t), creative
Children and Families, US. Department of Health and thinking can be cultivated in children.
Human Services. Available at: http://fpg.unc.edu/sites/
fpg.unc.edu/files/resources/reports-and-policy-briefs/
PromotingSelf-RegulationIntheFirstFiveYears.pdf RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATORS
A variety of strategies are available for caregivers and
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
teachers to foster creative thinking in children:
Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S.
• Emphasize the value of diverse perspectives as fuel for
(2007, Nov. 30). Preschool program improves cognitive
creativity. “Wow, what a cool idea! I’ve never thought
control. Science, 318(5855), 1387–1388. doi:10.1126/
about how an animal that is a horse with an eagle head
science.1151148
could make a great story character!”
Galinsky, E. (2010). Mind in the making: The seven essential
life skills every child needs. New York, NY: HarperCollins. • Allow for a wide range of approaches to completing
Wolters, C. A. (2011). Regulation of motivation: Contex- tasks, engaging in activities, and solving problems,
tual and social aspects. Teachers College Record, 113(2), realizing that each child might bring a unique approach
265–283. to every situation.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learn- • Provide children with opportunities to solve problems
er: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 64–70. in groups and to communicate their creative ideas
Zumbrunn, S., Tadlock, J., & Roberts, E. D. (2011). Encourag- to a wide range of audiences (peers, teachers, family
ing self-regulated learning in the classroom: A review of the members).
literature. Retrieved from http://www.mehritcentre.com/
assets/documents/Self%20Regulated%20Learning.pdf • Avoid the tendency to see children who are being highly
creative as disruptive. Instead teachers should channel
this enthusiasm into the solving of real-world problems.
• Vary activities by including opportunities for play and
PRINCIPLE 8 Children’s creativity the use of prompts such as, imagine if, create, invent,
can be fostered. discover, and predict.
• Use methods that focus on questioning, making unusual
connections, envisioning novel alternatives to solutions,
EXPLANATION and exploring different ideas and options.
Creativity – defined as the generation of ideas that are new • Share with children your own creative ideas – including
and useful in a particular situation – is a critical skill for the use of multiple ways to solve problems. This
children. Being able to identify problems, generate potential modeling can also involve providing examples of how
solutions, evaluate the effectiveness of those strategies, creative solutions are not necessary in all situations,
and then communicate with others about the value of which may help children to develop an improved
the solutions are all highly relevant to academic success sense of confidence in their judgment as to when it is
and quality of life. Creative approaches to caregiving and appropriate to focus on getting one right answer, and
teaching can inspire enthusiasm and joy in the learning when it is appropriate to pursue alternative approaches.
process by increasing children’s engagement in various
activities, situations, and learning contexts. The creative
process is often misconstrued as being purely spontaneous

18 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
Kwaśniewskaa, J. M., Gralewskib, J., Witkowskaa, E. M.,
Kostrzewskaa, M., & Lebuda, I. (2018). Mothers’ person-
ality traits and the climate for creativity they build with
their children. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 27, 13–24.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.11.002
Russ, S. W. (2014). Pretend play in childhood: Foundation
of adult creativity. Washington, DC: American Psycho-
logical Association.
Saracho, O. (2002) Young children's creativity and pretend
play, Early Child Development and Care, 172, 431-438,
DOI: 10.1080/03004430214553

REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20

Beghetto, R. A. (2013). Killing ideas softly? The promise and
perils of creativity in the classroom. Charlotte, NC: Infor-
mation Age Press
Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2013). In praise of Clark
Kent: Creative metacognition and the importance of
teaching kids when (not) to be creative. Roeper Review:
A Journal on Gifted Education, 35, 155 – 165.
Plucker, J., Beghetto, R. A., & Dow, G. (2004). Why isn’t
creativity more important to educational psychologists?
Potential, pitfalls, and future directions in creativity
research. Educational Psychologist, 39, 83-96.
Runco, M. A., & Pritzker, S. R. (Eds.). (2011). Encyclopedia
of creativity (2nd Edition). Boston: Academic Press.
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Singer, J. L. (Eds.).
(2004). Creativity: From potential to realization. Wash-
ington, DC: American Psychological Association.

How do Children Think and Learn? 19

What Motivates Children?

intrinsically motivated children show more long-lived

PRINCIPLE 9 Children tend to mastery of learning goals.5
enjoy learning and to do better when
they are more intrinsically rather than Notably, however, a substantial body of experimental
research studies shows that extrinsic motivation, when
extrinsically motivated to achieve. properly used, is very important in producing positive
educational outcomes. Research also shows that children
develop academic competence when they do tasks
EXPLANATION repeatedly in carefully constructed ways so that the basic
Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for skills become automatic (see Principle 5). As basic skills
its own sake. To be intrinsically motivated means to feel become automatic, the tasks require less effort and are
both competent and autonomous (e.g., I can do it for more enjoyable. Just as in sports, children improve their
myself). Children who are intrinsically motivated work academic skills when they do these activities repeatedly
on tasks because they find them enjoyable. In other words, with teacher guidance and feedback, gradually progressing
participation is its own incentive and is not contingent on from less complex tasks to more difficult ones. Encouraging
tangible rewards such as praise, grades, or other external children to engage in these activities often requires teacher
factors. In contrast, children who are extrinsically motivated encouragement and praise for making progress (an extrinsic
engage in learning tasks as a means to an end, such as to motivator). As children develop increasing competence,
get a good grade, praise from their parents/caregivers, or more complex tasks become more pleasurable. When
to avoid punishment. It is not the case that intrinsic and children have reached this point, learning often becomes
extrinsic motivation are at opposite ends of a motivation its own intrinsic reward.
continuum, such that having more of one means having
less of the other. Instead, children engage in tasks for both
intrinsic and extrinsic reasons (e.g. because they enjoy it and RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
to get a good grade). Nonetheless, intrinsically motivated EDUCATORS
task engagement is not only more gratifying, it is positively Promoting intrinsic motivation requires the incorporation
related to more enduring learning, achievement, and of practices and activities that support children’s
perceived competence, and is negatively related to anxiety. fundamental need to feel competent and autonomous:
These benefits occur because children who are intrinsically
• When possible, avoid using external rewards (e.g.,
motivated are more likely to approach their tasks in ways
stickers and prizes) to indicate a job well done or to
that enhance learning, such as attending more closely to
motivate behavior. Instead provide positive verbal
instruction, organizing new information effectively, and
feedback (e.g., saying “Nice job cleaning the paint
relating it to what they already know. They also feel more
brushes and paint!”) and stress the inherent interest or
self-efficacious and are not burdened by achievement
value in the activity (e.g., telling children that learning
anxiety. On the other hand, children who are more
about weather can help them prepare for the day). This
extrinsically motivated may be so focused on the reward
will keep motivation to pursue further tasks more
(e.g., getting a star by their name) that learning is superficial
intrinsic than extrinsic.
(e.g., the child may resort to shortcuts such as only doing
an easy task instead of a harder one), or they may become • When introducing tasks and activities, use language
discouraged if the pressures are too high. Furthermore, and techniques that help foster a sense of autonomy for
extrinsically motivated children may tend to disengage
once the external rewards are no longer provided, whereas 5 See also: http://www.apa.org/education/k12/learners.aspx

20 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

 participating. To do this, you can: (a) provide choices tion for science and teacher-child relationships. Journal
where possible. These can be small things such as which of Experimental Education, 76(2), 121-144.
activity to do first or larger things such as choosing from Sawyer, J. (2017). I think I can: Preschoolers' private speech
an array of activities, and (b) avoid controlling language and motivation in playful versus non-playful contexts.
such as “you have to,” “you should,” etc. Instead try third Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 38, 84-96.
person language for things that need to be done (e.g.,
everyone will be spending some time in the reading
area). REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
• Introduce tasks that are just above children’s current Anderman, E.M., & Anderman, L.H. (2014). Classroom
abilities. Since the motivation to be competent underlies motivation. Second Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson.
children’s intrinsic motivation, they will persist longer Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating students to learn. Mahwah, NJ:
and enjoy activities most when they are optimally Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers.
challenging. Brophy, J., Wiseman, D.G. & Hunt, G.H. (2008). Best
practice in motivation and management in the classroom
• Where possible, consider children’s interests when (Second Edition). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas
planning activities. Children will be most intrinsically Publisher.
motivated when they have inherent interest in the Deci E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and
subject. self-determination in human behavior. New York: Ple-
• Because intrinsic motivation involves enjoying a task for num.
its own sake, teachers might want to organize learning Thorkildsen, T.A., Golant, C.J., & Cambray-Engstrom, E.
activities following the ideas presented for Principle 8 on (2008). Essential solidarities for understanding Latino
creativity. That is, introduce novelty by providing some adolescents’ moral and academic engagement. In C.
level of surprise or incongruity and allowing for creative Hudley & A.E. Gottfried, (Eds. ) Academic motivation
problem solving. and the culture of schooling in childhood and adolescence
(pp. 73-89). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Supporting children’s intrinsic motivation to learn does
not mean that teachers should only introduce activities
that are fun for children. Certain tasks in the classroom
and in life, like practicing new skills, are going to be
inherently uninteresting, at least at the beginning level. It
is important to teach children that some tasks, even tasks
that are necessary to master, might be uninteresting at first,
yet require consistent, sometimes tedious, engagement for
learning. Once learned, new skills may become their own
reward.

EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES

Harris, R. (2007). Motivation and school readiness: What is
missing from current assessments of preschooler's readi-
ness for kindergarten? NHSA Dialog, 10(3-4), 151-163.
Ostroff, W., & ASCD. (2012). Understanding How Young
Children Learn: Bringing the Science of Child De-
velopment to the Classroom. ASCD. Retrieved from
http://proxy.wexler.hunter.cuny.edu/login?url=http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&d-
b=eric&AN=ED535600&site=ehost-live
Patrick, H., Mantzicopoulos, P., Samarapungavan, A., &
French, B. (2008). Patterns of young children's motiva-

What Motivates Children? 21

PRINCIPLE 10 Children persist in the and to value the gradual process of building on past
knowledge toward mastery.
face of challenging tasks and process
• Praising children by saying “perfect” or “amazing” or
information more deeply when they “you’re the best” highlights evaluation and does not
adopt mastery goals rather than provide specific information to the child about what
was done well. Instead, provide positive feedback on
performance goals. successful strategies the child seemed to be using (e.g.,
using different colors really made your flowers stand
out!) (see Principle 6, 9, 12).
EXPLANATION
• Avoid making comparisons between and among
Researchers have identified two broad types of goals:
children. Focus instead on the progress each child has
mastery goals and performance goals. Children who
made on his/her individual work rather than comparing
pursue mastery goals are oriented toward acquiring new
one child’s work to another child’s work.
skills or improving their levels of competence. In contrast,
children who adopt performance goals are motivated to • Encourage children to see mistakes as opportunities
demonstrate their ability through good performance and to learn rather than only evidence that they can’t do
teacher-approval (see Principle 9). Therefore, they tend to something. Teachers can even relay to children that
choose tasks that showcase abilities they already have, avoid “mistakes are our friend” in that they give us an idea
tasks at which they might fail, and compare themselves about what we need to attend to and focus on next.
to other children. Further, the meanings of “trying hard” Teachers’ own attitudes about mistakes can make a big
and “making mistakes” shift when children hold mastery difference to how children develop growth or fixed
or performance goals. With mastery goals, children are mindsets about intelligence (Principle 1).
more persistent because expending effort is consistent with
learning and mistakes are interpreted as information about
what they have not yet learned. With performance goals, EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
children are more likely to give up because working hard is Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. (2011). The great balanc-
often seen as a marker of low ability and mistakes as a sign ing act: Optimizing core curricula through playful ped-
of failure (see Principle 1). In typical classroom situations agogy. In E. Zigler, W. Gilliam, & W. Barnett (Eds.), The
where children often encounter new or challenging pre-K debates: Current controversies and issues (pp. 110-
materials, mastery goals are generally more useful than 116). Baltimore, MD, US: Paul H Brookes Publishing.
performance goals. Because young children are still Hirsh-Pasek, K., Zosh, J., Golinkoff, R., Gray, J., Robb, M.,
developing their understanding of learning and themselves, & Kaufman, J. (2015). Putting education in 'educational'
interactions within the classroom can play a significant role apps: Lessons from the science of learning. Psychological
in the goals the children take on in their classrooms. Science In the Public Interest, 16, 3-34
Kamins, M., & Dweck, C. (1999). Person versus process
praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-
RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD worth and coping. Developmental Psychology, 35, 835-
EDUCATORS 847.
There are specific ways that teachers can interact with and Siegler, R., & Ramani, G. (2009). Playing linear number
respond to children to foster mastery goals: board games—but not circular ones—improves low-in-
come preschoolers’ numerical understanding. Journal of
• When commenting on or asking open-ended questions
Educational Psychology, 101, 545-560.
about children’s activities (e.g., how did you decide
Stipek, D., & Seal, K. (2001). Motivated minds. Raising
whom to include in your picture?), teachers can focus
children to love learning. New York: Henry Holt and
on effort, problem-solving strategies, progress, and
Company.
cooperative action, more than on the correctness,
neatness, or adequacy of children’s “products.” Over
time, children will learn to notice their own progress

22 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20 that confirm the teacher’s original expectation. A teacher
expectation that creates its own reality has been labeled
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and chil-
a self-fulfilling prophecy. When mistaken expectations do
dren motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84,
occur, they are more likely to be directed toward stigmatized
261-271.
groups (e.g., immigrant, ethnic minority, economically
Anderman, L. H., & Anderman, E. M. (2009). Oriented
disadvantaged children, children with disabilities, and
towards mastery: Promoting positive motivational goals
especially young African American boys), because negative
for students. In R. Gilman, E. S. Huebner, & M. Furlong
beliefs, stereotypes, and implicit biases about the abilities of
(Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology in the schools (pp.
these groups persist in our society.
161–173). New York, NY: Routledge.
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). The paradox of achieve-
These faulty expectations are more likely to occur in the
ment: The harder you push, the worse it gets. In J. Aron-
earlier grades, at the beginning of a school year, and
son (Ed.), Improving academic achievement: Impact of
in the course of school transitions. In other words, the
psychological factors in education (pp. 62-90). San Diego,
most vulnerable periods are when the contexts in which
Ca: Academic press.
information about children’s past and potential competence
Graham, S. (1990). On communicating low ability in the
may be least available or reliable and when, because of the
classroom: Bad things good teachers sometimes do. In S.
messages they receive, children may begin to question their
Graham & V. Folkes (Eds.), Attribution theory: Applica-
abilities. Whatever the context, expectations influence how
tions to achievement, mental health, and interpersonal
teachers treat children. For example, overall teachers appear
conflict (pp. 17–36). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
to provide a more supportive emotional climate, clearer
Meece, J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman L. H. (2006).
feedback, more attention, more learning time, and more
Classroom goal structure, student motivation, and
learning opportunities for children for whom they hold high
academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 57,
versus low expectations. Over time, teachers’ differential
487–503. doi:10.1146 /annurev.psych.56.091103.070258
treatment can have ripple effects, further widening the
achievement gaps that often exist in the early years of school.

PRINCIPLE 11 Teachers’ expectations RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD

affect children’s opportunities to learn, EDUCATORS
It is essential for teachers to believe in all children’s
their motivation, and their learning
potential and to communicate high expectations to all
outcomes. children, maintaining elevated, developmentally appropriate
standards for everyone in order to avoid negative self-
fulfilling prophecies:
EXPLANATION
• Teachers’ expectations should not be based on
Early childhood educators often hold expectations about stereotypes. For example, some boys like to play in the
the abilities of the children they teach. These beliefs shape kitchen.
the kinds of learning experiences provided to children,
the grouping practices that may be used, anticipated • Teachers can continually assess the reliability of the
developmental and learning outcomes, methods of information they are using to form their expectations. A
evaluation, and interpretation of evaluation results. Most child’s previous difficulties should not be perceived as
teacher expectations about individual ability are based the absolute last word about that child (e.g., a number
on children’s behavior and past performance (sometimes of factors may have impaired the child’s behavior or
passed on by other teachers). Sometimes this may be an performance in the past). Circumstances may change,
accurate representation; however, especially in the early and a teacher now has an opportunity to disprove
years, development is highly plastic or changeable, especially previous negative stereotypes by offering positive
within a nurturing and stimulating environment. When relationships and challenging, engaging learning
teachers come to hold misperceptions or mistaken experiences to that child (see Principle 13). Again,
beliefs, such as expecting less of a child than he or she can teachers should remind themselves that race, immigrant
actually achieve, that child may begin to perform in ways status, gender, disability, and social class are not solid

What Motivates Children? 23

 bases on which to form expectations of children’s ability Social Psychology Review, 9(2), 131–155. doi:10.1207/
and potential. s15327957pspr0902_3
Jussim. L., Robustelli, S., & Cain, T. (2009). Teacher expec-
• It can be helpful for teachers to do a self-check. One way
tations and self-fulfilling prophecies. In A. Wigfield &
to do that might be for a teacher to ask whether s/he
K. Wentzel (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp.
has low-expectations for a child who exhibits negative
349–380). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
behavior, or if s/he is more likely to hold a group of
Schunk, D. H., Meece, J. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (2014). Motiva-
children who share a common trait in low regard.
tion in education: Theory, research, and applications.
Boston, MA: Pearson.
Probably the best antidote to negative expectancy effects is
Stipek, D. J. (2002). Motivation to learn: Integrating theory
to believe that all children can make progress and to never,
and practice (4th ed.). New York, NY: Allyn & Bacon.
ever give up on a child. Teachers’ positive expectations
will have the greatest influence on children who are most
vulnerable to low expectations.

PRINCIPLE 12 Setting goals that

EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES are short term (proximal), specific, and
Baker, C. N., Tichovolsky, M. H., Kupersmidt, J., Voegler- moderately challenging enhances
Lee, M., & Arnold, D. H. (2015). Teacher (mis)percep-
tions of preschoolers' academic skills: Predictors and motivation more than establishing
associations with longitudinal outcomes. Journal of goals that are long term (distal),
Educational Psychology, 107(3), 805-820.
Gilliam, W., Maupin, A., Reyes, C., Accavitti, M. & Shic, general, and overly challenging.
F. (2016). Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding
sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recom-
mendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions? EXPLANATION
Retrieved from http://ziglercenter.yale.edu/publications/ Goal setting is the process by which a person establishes
Preschool%20Implicit%20Bias%20Policy%20Brief_fi- a standard of performance (e.g., “I want to learn to tie my
nal_9_26_276766_5379.pdf. shoes”). This process is important for motivation because
Hinnant, J.B., O’Brien, M., & Ghazarian, S.R. (2009). The children who have a goal and adequate self-efficacy are
longitudinal relations of teacher expectations to achieve- likely to engage in the activities that lead to attainment of
ment in the early school years. Journal of Educational that goal. Self-efficacy is also increased as children monitor
Psychology, 101 (3), 662-670. the progress they are making toward their goals, especially
Schenke, K., Nguyen, T., Watts, T. W., Sarama, J., & Clem- when they are acquiring new skills in the process. However,
ents, D. H. (2017). Differential effects of the classroom for preschool-age children, the development of goal setting
on African American and non-African American's and progress monitoring is just beginning and needs
mathematics achievement. Journal of Educational Psy- significant teacher support.
chology, 109(6), 794-811.
At any age, three properties of goal setting are important
for building children’s motivation. First, short-term, or
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20 proximal goals are more motivating than long-term, or
Jussim, L., Eccles, J., & Madon, S. (1996). Social perception, distal goals because it is easier to judge progress toward
social stereotypes, and teacher expectations: Accuracy proximal goals. Developmentally, children tend to be less
and the quest for the powerful self-fulfilling prophecy. skilled at thinking concretely about the distant future; this
In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social is certainly the case with very young children. “I really want
psychology (Vol. 28, pp. 281–388). San Diego, CA Aca- to finish this puzzle before snack time” is more relevant than
demic Press. “Later this year, I will be able to do harder puzzles.” Second,
Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations specific goals (e.g. “During free choice time, I will help my
and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, friend read a story today”), are preferable to more general
resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and goals (e.g., “I will try to do my best”) because they are easier
to quantify and monitor. Third, moderately difficult goals

24 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

rather than very hard or very easy goals are the most likely EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
to motivate children because moderately difficult goals
Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S.
typically will be perceived as challenging but attainable (see
(2007). Preschool program improves cognitive con-
Principle 9). Because research has documented the benefits
trol. Science (New York, NY), 318(5855), 1387. On
of proximal, specific, and moderately challenging goals on
line: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
motivation and achievement outcomes, classrooms should
PMC2174918/
offer many opportunities for children to plan, and make
Epstein, A.S. (2003). How planning and reflection develop
progress toward accomplishing, these kinds of goals.
young children's thinking skills. Young Children, 58 (5),
28-36.
RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD Kopp, C. (2014). Young children: Instrumental control,
EDUCATORS emotion management, and plans. In Friedman, S.L., &
Scholnick, E.K. (Eds.), The developmental psychology of
Children need to be provided with many opportunities planning: Why, how, and when do we plan? (pp. 103-126).
to set short-term, specific, and moderately difficult goals New York and London: Psychology Press
in their classroom environment. Programs such as High/
Scope and Tools of the Mind include processes for children
to (a) plan their activities and identify learning goals, (b) REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
engage in those activities; and (c) review or evaluate their
Anderman, E. M., & Wolters, C. (2006). Goals, values, and
work. Such goals may be set by individual children or, often,
affect: Influences on student motivation. In P. A. Alexan-
by groups of children as they work on class projects or other
der & P. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychol-
collaborative activities:
ogy (2nd ed., pp. 369–389). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Keeping a record of goal progress that is regularly Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practical-
checked by the teacher and child or group of children is ly useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A
especially desirable. For young children, visual records 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705–717.
are meaningful. For example, if the child’s learning doi:10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705d
plan is to spend time in each of the kindergarten’s Martin, A. J. (2013). Goal setting and personal best (PB)
learning centers before lunch, a pictorial schedule goals. In J. Hattie & E. M. Anderman (Eds.), Internation-
allows the child to see and check off his or her successful al guide to student achievement (pp. 356–358). New York,
completion. NY: Routledge.
• With support, young children will be able to set Schunk, D. H. (1989). Self-efficacy and achievement
moderately challenging short-term (proximal) goals, behaviors. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 173–208.
and over time they will learn to become “intermediate doi:10.1007/BF01320134
risk takers” (not setting goals that are too low or too Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2006). Competence
high), which is one of the most important characteristics and control beliefs: Distinguishing means and ends.
of achievement-oriented individuals. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of
educational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 349–367). Mahwah,
• Although young children have difficulty thinking NJ: Erlbaum.
about long-term (distal) goals in the abstract, teachers
can engage children in longer-term planning through
class projects such as a springtime celebration, using
a calendar, photos of the upcoming event, and other
concrete reminders. “Sub-goals,” such as class tasks that
lead up to the party (making decorations, cooking, and
sending invitations) can be discussed and planned along
the way.

What Motivates Children? 25

Why are social context, interpersonal
relationships, and emotional well-being
important to children’s learning?

relationships and communication between children and

PRINCIPLE 13 Learning is situated
their peers and between educators and children because:
within multiple social contexts.
• The more teachers know about the cultural backgrounds
of children and how differences in values, beliefs,
EXPLANATION language, and behavioral expectations can influence
behavior, the better they can effectively facilitate
Given the variation in cultural experiences that children teaching and learning in structured educational settings.
bring with them, it is critical that early childhood For example, for children whose culture is more
educators facilitate a “classroom culture” that ensures collectivist than individualistic, educators can enhance
shared meanings, values, beliefs, and behavioral learning experiences through particular emphasis on
expectations and provides a safe and secure environment cooperative learning activities.
for all young children.
• Early childhood educators can relate the curriculum
Children acquire knowledge and skills by relying on to children’s cultural backgrounds. For example,
families, peers, and structured settings, such as daycare and incorporating songs in different languages into language
early childhood education classrooms that are embedded learning or gearing games toward local traditions or
in broader contexts including schools, neighborhoods, family backgrounds. Parents and community members
communities, and society. As children participate more may be an excellent resource for this kind of cultural
and more in these broader contexts, they are increasingly knowledge.
influenced by layers of culture, including shared language, • Establishing connections with families and local
beliefs, values, and behavioral norms. Furthermore, these communities can help enhance understanding of
layers interact with each other (i.e., families and early children’s cultural experiences and facilitate shared
childhood education settings). Appreciating the potential understandings about learning. Family involvement also
influence of this range of contexts can enhance the facilitates learning for children and is a crucial part of
effectiveness of instruction and communication across the transition to school, so creating opportunities for
contexts (e.g., between parents and daycare providers or family and community involvement is vital, including
educators) inviting parents into the classroom to teach a favorite
game, or song, or share cultural experience.

RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD • Seeking opportunities for children to participate in the
EDUCATORS local community (e.g., attending local cultural events)
can help connect the relevance of learning to everyday
Early childhood educators who understand the ways lives and enhance educators’ understanding of the
in which the social context of structured educational cultural backgrounds and experiences of the young
environments may influence children and the teaching- children in the classroom.
learning process can facilitate the development of basic skills
fundamental to the development of positive interpersonal

26 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES EXPLANATION
Dockett, S., & Perry, B. (2017). The role of schools and The teaching–learning process in early childhood learning
communities in children’s school transitions. Encyclope- environments is inherently interpersonal, encompassing
dia on Early Childhood Development. both educator-child and peer connections. These
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- relationships are essential for facilitating healthy social-
ment (OECD). Policy lever 1: Setting out quality goals emotional development. Given their social nature,
and regulations. Starting strong III: A quality toolbox structured learning environments provide a critical
for early childhood education and care. http://www.oecd. context for teaching social skills, such as emotion
org/edu/school/startingstrongiii-aqualitytoolboxforear- identification and regulation, communication/
lychildhoodeducationandcare.htm. Published October 1, self-expression, and respect. Developing successful
2012. Accessed October 8, 2017. relationships with peers and adults depends highly on one’s
ability to communicate verbally and nonverbally.6

REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20

RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
Lee, P. C., & Stewart, D. E. (2013). Does a socio-ecological
EDUCATORS
school model promote resilience in primary schools?
Journal of School Health, 83, 795–804. doi:10.1111/ Given the interpersonal nature of teaching and learning,
josh.12096 early childhood educators should attend to the relational
National Association of School Psychologists. (2013). A aspects of the classroom:
framework for safe and successful schools. Retrieved from
• A safe and secure environment, both physical and social,
www.nasponline. org
and shared learning culture (e.g., ensuring that everyone
Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Higgins-D’Alessandro, & Ga ey, S.
in the classroom is clear about relevant vocabulary,
(2012). School climate research summary: August 2012.
values, and norms) provide the foundation for healthy
New York, NY: National School Climate Center.
educator-child and peer relationships.
Trickett, E. J., & Rowe, H. L. (2012). Emerging ecological
approaches to prevention, health promotion, and public • Early childhood educators can provide behavioral
health in the school context: Next steps from a commu- expectations related to social interactions (e.g., respect
nity psychology perspective. Journal of Educational and for others, use of clear communication, non-violent
Psychological Consultation, 22, 125–140. doi:10.1080/104 conflict resolution) and opportunities for all children to
74412.2011.649651 experience successful social exchanges and feel safe.
Ysseldyke, J., Lekwa, A. J., Klingbeil, D. A., & Cormier, D. • Learning effective social skills must include planned
C. (2012). Assessment of ecological factors as an integral instruction and opportunities for practice and feedback.
part of academic and mental health consultation. Jour- These social skills include emotion identification,
nal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 22, emotion control/regulation, problem solving,
21–43. doi:10.1080/10474412. 2011.649641 cooperation, and understanding shared goals.
• Early childhood educators are responsible for ensuring
that a positive social climate is maintained through
cooperative and supportive norms and promoting
PRINCIPLE 14 Interpersonal
peaceful resolution of peer conflicts. Intervention should
relationships and communication are occur where young children demonstrate aggressive
critical to both the teaching–learning behavior toward others. Educators may need assistance
from support personnel in developing positive strategies
process and the social development of when children persistently use challenging behavior.
children. Educators should avoid expelling or suspending young
children from school as non-behavioral factors, such as
class size or lack of support staff, lead to or at the very
least contribute to a child’s challenging behavior.

6 See also https://www.apa.org/education/k12/relationships

Why are Social Context, Interpersonal Relationships, and Emotional Well-Being Important 27
• One of the foundational skills for the more complex Durlak, J., Weissberg, R., Dymnicki, A., Taylor, R., & Schell-
interactions described above is the development of inger, K. (2011). The impact of enhancing childrens’ so-
thoughtful communication. Effective communication cial and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-
requires both teaching and practice of component skills. based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1),
Educators may incorporate lessons in communication 405–432. doi:10.1111/j.1467- 8624.2010.01564.x
basics as part of the routine curriculum. For example, Pianta, R. C., & Stuhlman, M. W. (2004). Teacher–child
they might incorporate special skills into a lesson (such relationships and children’s success in the first years of
as using specific words for feelings rather than “good” school. School Psychology Review, 33(3), 444–458.
or “bad”) and provide opportunities to apply those skills, Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Baroody, A. E., Larsen, A. A., Curby,
such as during cooperative learning. In addition, early T. W., & Abry, T. (2015). To what extent do teacher–chil-
childhood educators can: dren interaction quality and children gender contribute
to fifth graders’ engagement in mathematics learn-
• Prompt children to elaborate on their responses.
ing? Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 170–185.
• Engage in give-and-take with other children doi:10.1037/a0037252
during discussions. Webster-Stratton, C., Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., &
Newcomer, L. L. (2013). The Incredible Years teacher
• Listen carefully to others.
classroom management training: The methods and prin-
• Read nonverbal cues. ciples that support training delivery. School Psychology
• Provide opportunities for children to practice Review, 40(4), 509–529
communication in both structured and social
contexts.
• Provide feedback to enhance skill development.
PRINCIPLE 15 Emotional well-being
• Model effective verbal and nonverbal
influences educational performance,
communication by using active listening,
matching facial expression with verbal messages, learning, and development.
using questions effectively, providing elaboration
in response to children’s questions, and seeking
children’s perspectives. EXPLANATION
Children’s emotional well-being can influence the quality
of their participation in the teaching–learning process,
EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES their interpersonal relationships, the effectiveness of their
Pianta, R., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Bryant, D., Clifford, communication, their responsiveness to the classroom
R., Early, D., & Barbarin, O. (2005) Features of pre-kin- learning environment, and the way they interact with
dergarten programs, classrooms, and teachers: Do they the atmosphere established there. Components of
predict observed classroom quality and child-teacher emotional well-being in early childhood include beliefs
interactions? Applied Developmental Science, 9, 144-159, and perceptions of oneself, confidence in one’s abilities
DOI: 10.1207/s1532480xads0903_2 to meet classroom expectations, a sense of control over
Yoshikawa, H., Weiland, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Burchinal, M., oneself and one’s environment, self-regulation of emotions
Espinosa, L., Gormley, W. T., Ludwig, J., Magnuson, K., and behaviors, general feelings of well-being, and capacity
Phillips, D., & Zaslow, M (2013). Investing in our future: for responding in healthy ways to everyday stresses. Being
The evidence base on preschool. Washington, DC: Society emotionally healthy depends on understanding, expressing,
for Research in Child Development. and regulating one’s own emotions, as well as perceiving
and understanding others’ emotions. Finally, understanding
others’ emotions is influenced by how children perceive
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20 expectations from their early childhood educators and peers,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). and acceptance on the part of significant others in their
School connectedness: Strategies for increasing protec- classroom, family, peer group, community, and cultural
tive factors among youth. Retrieved from www.cdc.gov/ environment. (see Principles 13 and 14).
HealthyYouth

28 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
EDUCATORS
Bagdi, A., & Vacca, J. (2005). Supporting Early Childhood
Early childhood educators play a key role in helping Social-Emotional Well Being: The Building Blocks for
children learn about emotions; establishing an environment Early Learning and School Success. Early Childhood
in which all children are accepted, valued, and respected; Education Journal, 33(3), 145-150. doi:10.1007/s10643-
providing extra support for individual children when 005-0038-y
needed; and fostering positive relationships. Early Denham, S. A., Blair, K. A, DeMulder, E., Levitas, J., Sawyer,
childhood educators can help facilitate the way children K., Auerbach–Major, S., & Queenan, P. (2003). Preschool
experience, express, and regulate their emotions by: Emotional Competence: Pathway to Social Competence?
Child Development, 74, 238-256.
• Helping children build their emotional vocabulary
Graves Jr., S. L., & Howes, C. (2011). Ethnic Differences
by having a chart with facial expressions and asking
in Social-Emotional Development in Preschool: The
children to identify how a child in an illustration might
Impact of Teacher Child Relationships and Classroom
be feeling at a certain moment, or asking children what
Quality. School Psychology Quarterly, 26(3), 202-214.
makes them feel sad, happy, angry, etc.
doi:10.1037/a0024117
• Responding in ways that validate children’s emotions. Zinsser, K. M., Denham, S. A., & Curby, T. W. (2018). Being
This is as simple as providing a label for an emotion a social-emotional teacher: The heart of good guidance.
(e.g., “I see you’re angry.”). Behavior does not need to be Young Children, 73(/’4), 77-83
validated (e.g., “Even though you’re angry, you are not
allowed to hit.”).
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
• Helping children regulate their emotions. For example,
a teacher can help a child who is having a meltdown CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
breathe deeply while modelling this behavior for them. Learning). (2012). CASEL Guide: Effective social and emo-
tional learning programs. Retrieved from www.casel.org
• Establishing routines for helping to regulate emotions.
Hagelskamp, C., Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., & Salovey,
Creating a “cozy corner” in the room where children can
P. (2013).Improving classroom quality with the RULER
take time alone when feeling upset.
approach to social and emotional learning: Proximal
• Encouraging and teaching appropriate language to use and distal outcomes. American Journal of Community
when they feel upset. For example, helping children Psychology, 51(3–4), 530–543.doi:10.1007/s10464-013-
express the need for some space/time alone. 9570-x
Jain, S., Buka, S. L., Subramanian, S. V., & Molnar, B. E.
• Teaching children to be empathic and compassionate;
(2012). Protective factors for youth exposed to violence:
modeling this for them daily and encouraging them to
Role of developmental assets in building emotional re-
engage in kind behaviors, such as by asking a friend
silience. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10, 107–129.
who is upset how they are feeling or if they are okay,
doi:10.1177/1541204011424735
not only saying sorry for something they have done but
Jones, S. M., Aber, J. L., & Brown, J. L. (2011). Two-year
also asking what they can do to make it better. Teachers
impacts of a universal school-based social-emotional
can also create a space where children in conflict or
and literacy intervention: An experiment in translation-
who are about to have a conflict can achieve a sense of
al developmental research. Child Development, 82(2),
equilibrium. Creating this balance should be scaffolded
533–554. doi:10.1111/j.1467- 8624.2010.01560.x
by the teacher.
Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., &
• Encouraging children to resolve their conflicts and forgive Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Positive psychol-
each other, while engaging in a conversation about what ogy and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Edu-
they could do differently in the future, creating some cation, 35, 293–311. doi:10.1080/03054980902934563
space if children feel they need it, and then helping them
to rejoin their friends when they feel ready.

Why are Social Context, Interpersonal Relationships, and Emotional Well-Being Important 29
How can the classroom
best be managed?

• Skills needed for effective classroom participation,

PRINCIPLE 16 Expectations including getting along with others, paying attention,
for classroom conduct and social following directions, and managing emotions can be
interaction are learned and can be taught through direct instruction embedded in daily
activities, offering repeated opportunities to practice
taught using proven principles of these skills. Incorporating cognitive, social, emotional,
behavior and effective classroom and behavioral skill-building opportunities into
classroom play creates natural opportunities for skill
instruction. development across multiple contexts. Teacher modeling
further enhances children’s acquisition of these skills.

EXPLANATION • Classroom expectations may begin at a basic level

to orient children to the classroom setting and the
Children’s ability to learn is as much affected by their structure of the school day. Behavioral expectations
emotional and behavioral self-regulation as is it by their should increase in complexity over time as children
cognitive skill. Children’s behavior that does not conform become better able to comply.
to classroom rules or teacher expectations cannot simply
be regarded as a distraction to be eliminated before • Families should be included in activities and processes
instruction can take place. Rather, behaviors conducive aimed at developing children’s cognitive, social,
to learning and appropriate social interaction are emotional, and behavioral skills. Sharing expectations,
best taught at the beginning of the academic year and curriculum, and activities through newsletters, home-
continuously reinforced throughout the year. These based actions, family events, and other methods can
behaviors can be taught using proven behavioral principles, encourage families to focus on these skills, offering
including modeling and play-based activities. For children additional learning contexts and aligning home and
exhibiting more serious or consistent problem behaviors, school expectations.
understanding the context and function of the behavior is a
key element in teaching appropriate replacement behaviors.7
EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
Blair, C., & Raver, C.C. (2015). School readiness and
RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD self-regulation: A developmental and psychobiological
EDUCATORS approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, pp. 711-731.
Early childhood education programs offer ideal Mashburn, A. J., & Pianta, R. C. (2006). Social relationships
opportunities for young children to develop the cognitive, and school readiness. Early Education and. Development,
social, emotional, and behavioral skills to be “ready to 17(1): 151-176.
learn” in later classroom settings. A goal of early childhood McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., Schmitt, S. A. & Dun-
education should be to develop these skills to prepare young can, R. (2017). SEL interventions in early childhood. The
children for K-12 education. Future of Children, 27(1), pp. 33 – 47.
Milagros, N., & Barnett, W. S. (2014). Access to high quality
early care and education: readiness and opportunity gaps

7 See also https://www.apa.org/education/k12/classroom-management

30 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

 in America. New Brunswick, NJ: Center on Enhancing an effective learning climate is based on structure and
Early Learning Outcomes. this kind of support. In terms of structure, children need
Morris, P., et al. (2013). Using Classroom Management to to have a clear understanding of the behavioral rules and
Improve Preschoolers’ Social and Emotional Skills: Final expectations of the classroom, and these expectations must
Impact and Implementation Findings from the Founda- be communicated directly and frequently, as well as being
tions of Learning Demonstration in Newark and Chicago. consistently enforced. Behavioral expectations should begin
New York: MDRC. with simple tasks and increase in complexity throughout the
year so that children are ready for the structured school setting
by the end of their pre-K experience (see Principle 16).
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
American Psychological Association, Zero Tolerance Task
RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
Force. (2008). Are zero tolerance policies effective in the
EDUCATORS
schools? An evidentiary review and recommendations.
American Psychologist, 63, 852–862. doi:10.1037/0003- Children profit from a predictable structure, high
066X.63.9.852 expectations for cognitive growth and classroom behavior,
Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2009). Classroom man- and consistent modeling, reminders, and support for
agement for elementary teachers (8th ed.). Upper Saddle learning what is expected to meet those expectations.
River, NJ: Pearson.
• A safe and well-arranged physical environment, a
Skiba, R., & Peterson, R. (2003). Teaching the social curric-
predictable schedule, and rules that are clearly explained
ulum: School discipline as instruction. Preventing School
and consistently reinforced all contribute to a safe and
Failure, 47(2), 66–73.
orderly learning climate that reduces distraction and
Slavin, R. E. (Ed.). (2014). Classroom management and
keeps the focus on learning and development of skills.
assessment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Sprick, R. (2006). Discipline in the secondary classroom: • A teacher modeling the role of emotion, attention, and
A positive approach to behavior management (2nd ed.). learning during daily activities through purposeful
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. interaction with each child helps to create a positive
Sugai, G., & Simonsen, B. (2015). Supporting general class- classroom environment and develops a productive
room management: Tier 2/3 practices and systems. In E. pathway for learning.
T. Emmer & E. J. Sabornie (Eds.), Handbook of classroom • Teachers benefit from targeted supports such as
management (2nd ed., pp. 60–75). New York, NY: Taylor continuing education opportunities, mentoring, and
& Francis collaboration with peers and to help them master
positive behavior management techniques and warm,
nurturing approaches to working with young children.

PRINCIPLE 17 Effective classroom

EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES
management is based on (a) setting
Bierman, K. L., Domitrovich, C. E., Nix, R. L., Gest, S. D.,
and communicating high expectations,
Welsh, J. A, et al., (2008). Promoting academic and
(b) consistently nurturing positive social-emotional school readiness: The Head Start REDI
relationships, and (c) providing a program. Child Development, 79(6), pp. 1802-1817.
Blair, C., & Raver, C.C. (2015). School readiness and
high level of support. self-regulation: A developmental and psychobiological
approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 711-731.
Diamond, A., Barnett, W.S., Thomas, j., & Munro, S., (2007).
EXPLANATION Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science,
To be both effective and culturally responsive, teachers 318(5855), pp. 1387-1388.
can develop and maintain strong, positive relationships Shure, M. B. (1993). I can problem solve: Interpersonal cog-
with children by consistently communicating that they nitive problem solving for young children. Early Child
value each child (see Principle 11). The development of Development and Care, 96, 49-64.

How Can the Classroom Best Be Managed? 31

Zins, J.E. (2004). Building Academic Success on Social and
Emotional Learning: What Does the Research Say? NY:
Teachers College Press.

REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20

Evertson, C. M., & Emmer, E. T. (2009). Classroom man-
agement for elementary teachers (8th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Rothstein-Fisch, C., & Trumball, E. (2008). Managing
diverse classrooms: How to build on students’ cultural
strengths. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Skiba, R., & Peterson, R. (2003). Teaching the social cur-
riculum: School discipline as instruction. Preventing
School Failure, 47(2), 66–73.
Weinstein, C., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004).
Toward a conception of culturally responsive classroom
management. Journal of Teacher Education, 55, 25-38.
doi:10.1177/0022487103259812

32 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

How can educators assess
children’s progress?

Both formative and summative assessments can be

PRINCIPLE 18 Formative and
developed by teachers or those outside of the classroom—
summative assessments are for example, by a testing company on behalf of a state
both important and useful but agency or a curriculum developer. Although these two types
of assessments are designed to address different questions,
require different approaches and they should complement each other in an effort to produce
interpretations. valid, fair, useful, and reliable sources of information and
insight into young children’s learning and development (see
Principle 19).
EXPLANATION
Formative assessments, sometimes referred to as authentic RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
assessments, are used to guide and shape classroom EDUCATORS
instruction directly. Summative assessments are used to
produce an overall judgment of children’s learning progress Employing formative assessments can result in important
or the effectiveness of educational programs. Formative increases in children’s learning when teachers:
assessments can answer questions such as “How is Mary • Have sound knowledge of child development
progressing in understanding the concept of one-to-one
• Have, over time, developed the skill of observation
correspondence?” and can take place before or during
and documentation of young children’s learning and
instruction. These assessments can be spontaneous, and
development
have the explicit purpose of improving current learning.
Summative assessments, which may take the form of • Use lessons and other classroom experiences to collect
standardized, norm-referenced measures, attempt to gauge evidence on children’s learning.
children’s learning at a particular moment, usually at the
• Are able to use this evidence to assess what children
end of a unit of study, a period of time, or academic year.
know and promptly modify their instructional practices
to facilitate individual and group learning, as needed.
The approach used to collect information on young children
is likely to differ between the two types of assessments as
Teachers can improve the effectiveness of formative
well, given their different purposes. The effectiveness of
assessments when they:
formative assessments can inform instructional practice.
It is more likely to depend on the teacher’s knowledge of • Focus systematically on setting appropriate learning
child development for accurate and reliable observation and goals for individual children, and then determine
documentation of learning and well-being. Strategies may whether children have met these goals.
incorporate learning progressions and include discussion,
• Consistently consider how to improve their instructional
collaboration, self and peer assessment, and descriptive
practices.
feedback. Summative assessments, given their purpose of
evaluating progress against a benchmark, are more likely • Keep the length of time between the formative
to be standardized large-scale assessments that evaluate assessment and subsequent instruction relatively short;
individual work to yield an overall score or performance- as this is when the information from the formative
level designation. assessment is most accurate and relevant.

How Can Educators Assess Children’s Progress? 33

Teachers can make better use of both formative and PRINCIPLE 19 Children’s skills,
summative assessments when they understand basic
concepts of educational measurement (also see Principles knowledge, and abilities are best
19 and 20). Teachers can also use assessment data to measured with assessment processes
evaluate their own instruction to consider whether they
have adequately addressed the material they intended to grounded in psychological science
cover and whether they were effective in meeting their with well-defined standards for quality
instructional goals. Teachers will also want to ensure that
they provide multiple formats for instructional delivery (for
and fairness.
example through conversation, drawings, or constructions)
for children to demonstrate what they have learned and are
EXPLANATION
trying to understand.
Teachers and leaders are working in an era when
assessments are a constant topic of discussion and debate.
EARLY CHILDHOOD REFERENCES It is important to remember, however, that there are clear
standards for judging the quality of assessments of any type.
Gullo, D. F. (2005). Understanding assessment and evalua-
This is true of both formative and summative assessment
tion in early childhood education (2nd ed.). New York:
(see the Standards for Educational and Psychological
Teachers College Press.
Testing; AERA, APA, & NCME, 2014). Assessments that
Jablon, J. R., Dombro, A. L., & Dichtlemiller, M.L. (1999).
are both reliable and valid help teachers, administrators,
The power of observation (2nd ed). Teaching Strategies,
and policymakers make appropriate inferences about
Washington, DC.
children’s knowledge, skills, and abilities.
National Association for the Education of Young Children
(2003). Early childhood curriculum, assessment and
The validity of an assessment can be thought of in relation to
program evaluation: Building effective, accountable
four essential questions:
systems in programs for children birth through age
8. Position Statement on Curriculum, Assessment, and • How much of what you want to measure is actually
Program evaluation. Washington, DC. being measured?
• How much of what you did not intend to measure is
REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20 actually being measured?

Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. • What are the intended and unintended consequences of
(2003). Assessment for learning: Putting it into practice. the assessment and its results?
Buckingham, England: Open University Press. • What evidence do you have to support your answers to
Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). (2008). the first three questions?
Formative assessment: Examples of practice. Retrieved
from the CCSSO website: http://ccsso.org/Docu- The validity of an assessment tool is not simply a number. It
ments/2008/Formative_Assessment_Examples_2008.pdf is a judgment, over time and across a variety of situations,
Heritage, M. (2007). Formative assessment: What do about the inferences that can be drawn from assessment
teachers need to know and do? Phi Delta Kappan, 89(2), data, including the intended or unintended consequences
140–145. of using the assessment. For example, assessment users
Sheppard, L. A. (2006). Classroom assessment. In R. L. need to be able to infer from assessment results that it
Brennan (Eds.), Educational measurement (4th ed., pp. accurately reflects children’s learning and not other factors.
623–646). West port, CT: American Council on Educa- For this to be true, the assessment must be validated for the
tion/Praeger. purpose and population for which it is being used. Further,
Wylie, C., & Lyon, C. (2012, June). Formative assessment— individual children must be motivated and engaged in
Supporting children’s learning. R & D Connections (No. activities that will enhance their eagerness to show what
19). Retrieved from the Educational Testing Service web- they know and can do. Otherwise, center and school
site: http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/RD_Con- personnel cannot tell if children’s learning is being measured
nections_19.pdf or if what is being measured is the degree of effort the child
is putting into participating in an assessment process.

34 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

Fairness is a component of validity. Valid assessment • Basing high-stakes decisions on multiple measures
requires saying clearly what an assessment is and is not instead of a single test result.
supposed to measure and requires evidence of this for all
• Monitoring children’s outcomes to determine whether
test takers. Assessments showing real differences among
there are consistent discrepancies across performance
young children that are based on what is being measured
or outcomes of children from different cultural groups.
are fair; tests showing differences among children that are
For example, are some subgroups of children routinely
unrelated to the purpose of the test are not fair. For example,
overrepresented in certain types of programming (e.g.,
asking a young child from an urban environment when
special education)?
deer hunting season takes place, could be considered to be
an unfair assessment of the child’s vocabulary given deer
hunting is not common in urban environments. REFERENCES FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD

Reliability of an assessment is also a key factor. A reliable Berry, D. J., Bridges, L. J., & Zaslow, M. J. (2004). Early
assessment is one whose results are consistent indicators childhood measures profiles. Washington, DC: Child
of children’s knowledge, skills, and abilities. Scores should Trends.
not be affected by chance factors associated with, for Halle, T., Zaslow, M., Wessel, J., Moodie, S., & Dar-
example, children’s motivation or interest as it relates to a ling-Churchill, K. (2011). Understanding and choosing
given set of test questions, variations in testing conditions, assessments and developmental screeners for young
or other variables that are not part of what the assessment children: Profiles of selected measures. Washington, DC:
administrator intends to measure. In general, assessments Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Admin-
with more items are more reliable than shorter ones. istration for Children and Families, US Department of
However, the limited attention span of young children Health and Human Services.
should be a critical consideration when deciding on how National Research Council (2008) Early childhood assess-
many items to include. ment: Why, what, and how/ Washington, DC.: The Na-
tional Academies Press. https://doi.otg/10.17226/12446.

RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATORS REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20

Whenever teachers administer an assessment, it is best to American Educational Research Association, American
consider its strengths and limitations with respect to what Psychological Association, & National Council on Mea-
they hope it will tell them about their children’s learning. surement in Education. (2014). Standards for education-
Teachers can apply strategies to improve the reliability al and psychological testing. Washington, DC: American
of their assessments and be cognizant of why some Educational Research Association.
assessments will be more reliable than others. Teachers can Brookhart, S. (2011). Educational assessment knowledge
improve the quality of the assessments they use by: and skills for teachers. Educational Measurement: Issues
and Practice, 30(1), 3–12.
• Only assessing material that has been taught or Moss, P. A. (2003). Reconceptualizing validity for class-
discussed. room assessment. Educational Measurement: Issues and
• Using a sufficient number of questions and a variety of Practice, 22(4), 13–25.
assessment formats in which children may demonstrate Smith, J. K. (2003). Reconsidering reliability in classroom
their knowledge and skill on the same topic. assessment and grading. Educational Measurement:
Issues and Practice, 22(4), 26–33.
• Avoid questions that are too hard or too easy and are not
Wiliam, D. (2014). What do teachers need to know about
providing sufficient differentiation in knowledge (e.g.,
the new Standards for educational and psychological
100% of children answered the item correctly).
testing? Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice,
• Being mindful that assessments that are valid for one 33, 20–30. doi:10.1111 /emip.12051
use or setting may not be valid for another (e.g., an
assessment designed as a screening tool may not be valid
for monitoring progress over time).

How Can Educators Assess Children’s Progress? 35

PRINCIPLE 20 Making sense of Data gathered from any assessment are best interpreted
in light of their suitability for addressing specific
assessment data depends on clear, questions about children or educational programs, their
appropriate, and fair interpretation. appropriateness for individuals from a variety of different
backgrounds and educational circumstances, and the
intended and unintended consequences that result from
EXPLANATION using the assessment. Because both higher- and lower-
stakes assessments can have significant impact on children,
The meaning of assessment outcomes depends on clear,
it is important to make careful interpretations of the results
appropriate, and fair interpretation. Scores from any
of either type of test.
assessment should generally be used only for the specific
purposes for which the assessments were designed.
Awareness of the strengths and limitations of any assessment
is critical. Such awareness also enables teachers to
Effective teaching depends on teachers being informed
communicate caveats, such as the sub-optimal reliability of
consumers of educational research, effective interpreters
scores (see more on this in Principle 19) and the importance
of data for classroom use, and good communicators with
of using multiple sources of evidence for high-stakes
children and their families about assessment data and
decisions.
resulting decisions that affect children. Teachers can weigh
curricular and assessment choices to evaluate whether
those resources are supported by research evidence and are REFERENCES FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD
suitable for use with diverse learners.
National Research Council (2008) Early childhood assess-
For example, tests intended to rank order children for a ment: Why, what, and how. Washington, DC: The Na-
competition may be valid, fair, and useful for that purpose, tional Academies Press. https://doi.otg/10.17226/12446.
but at the same time these tests would likely be misleading
for determining the strengths and weaknesses of each
individual children’s mastery of material in a particular REFERENCES FROM ORIGINAL TOP 20
subject-matter area. American Educational Research Association, American
Psychological Association, & National Council on Mea-
surement in Education. (2014). Standards for education-
RELEVANCE FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD al and psychological testing. Washington, DC: American
EDUCATORS Educational Research Association.
To interpret assessment data effectively, teachers should American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Appropriate use
address the following about any assessment they use: of high- stakes testing in our nation’s schools. Retrieved
from http://apa.org/pubs/info/brochures/testing.aspx
• What was the assessment intended to measure?
• How are the assessment results to be used? Are the
results aligned to the goals for which the assessment was
designed?
• What comparisons are the assessment data based
on? Are children being compared to one another? Or,
instead, are children’s responses being directly compared
to samples of acceptable and unacceptable responses
that the teacher or others have provided?
• What are the criteria for cut-points or standards? Are
the children’s scores being classified using a standard
or cut-point, such as a pass/fail category, letter grades,
or some other indicator of satisfactory/unsatisfactory
performance?

36 TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY