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THE DIFFERENTIAL FORMS OF

THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
Coordinate system

There are two common coordinate system:

1. Cartesian coordinate

2. Polar coordinate
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CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM:

A Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely
in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point
from two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each
reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis (plural axes) of the system, and the
point where they meet is its origin, at ordered pair (0, 0). The coordinates can also be
defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes,
expressed as signed distances from the origin.

Example of Cartesian coordinate

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Motion of one element can be shown as below:

N = velocity at x-axis
R = velocity at y-axis
S = resultant velocity

S = TN! + R !
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POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM:

In mathematics, the polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in

which each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an
angle from a reference direction.

The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system) is called
the pole, and the ray from the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance
from the pole is called the radial coordinate or radius, and the angle is called the angular
coordinate, polar angle, or azimuth.
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N" = velocity at radial direction

N# = velocity at tangential direction
S = resultant velocity

S = T(N" )! + (N# )!
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THE DIFFERENTIAL FORMS OF THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS

The basic equations considered in this chapter are the three laws of conservation for
physical systems:

1. Conservation of mass (continuity)

2. Conservation of momentum (Newton’s second law)
3. Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics)
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CONSERVATION OF MASS
THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

Mass flow rate into the element in x- and y-direction is

shown in the figure below.

Mass flow rate = _̇ = abc

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The net flux of mass entering the element equal to the rate of change of the mass of the
element.
e
_̇in − _̇out = _element
ef

You may think like this:

Let say we have system of incompressible flow like this;

INCOMPRESSIBLE
!̇in SYSTEM
!̇out

_̇in = _̇out

e
_̇in − _̇out = _element = 0
ef
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Let say we have system of incompressible flow like this;

INCOMPRESSIBLE
!̇in SYSTEM
!̇out

_̇in ≠ _̇out

e
_̇in = _element + _̇out
ef

e
_̇in − _̇out = _
ef element
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If we have system of compressible flow like this;

COMPRESSIBLE
!̇in SYSTEM
!̇out

_̇in ≠ _̇out

e
_̇in = _element + _̇out
ef

e
_̇in − _̇out = _element
ef
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The net flux of mass entering the element equal to the rate of change of the mass of the
element.
e
_̇in − _̇out = _element
ef

Mass flow rate = density × velocity × cross section area

+(!" ) +(!' ) +
!"#$#% + !'#(#% − *!" + #(. #$#% − *!' + #$. #(#% = (!#(#$#%)
+( +$ +0
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Simplifying the above expression:

e(aN ) e(aR) ea
+ + =0
ek el ef

If the z-direction is exist, it will become:

e(aN ) e(aR) e (am) ea

+ + + =0
ek el en ef

Then, the differential continuity equation can be written as:

ea ea ea ea eN eR em
+N +R +m +ao + + p=0
ef ek el en ek el en

This is the most general form of the differential continuity equation expressed using
rectangular coordinates.
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For the case of incompressible flow, a flow in which density of a fluid particle does not
change as it travels along, the continuity equation becomes:

eN eR em
+ + =0
ek el en

Assume that we are discussing only 2-D coordinate, and there is no changes in density
(incompressible), we might express the continuity equation as follows:

!" !%
+ =0
!# !&
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EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

Cartesian coordinates:

ea ea ea ea eN eR em
The continuity equation +N +R +m +ao + + p=0
ef ek el en ek el en

ea e(aN) e(aR ) e(am )

We can simplify it + + + =0
ef ek el en

eN eR em
For 3D incompressible flow + + =0
ek el en

rN rR
For 2D incompressible flow + =0
rk rl
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CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
THE NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

The Navier-Stokes equation is widely used in both theory and in application. The Navier-
Stokes equation represents Newton’s second law of motion as applied to viscous flow of a
Newtonian fluid. In this notes, we assume incompressible flow and constant viscosity.

Similar to continuity equations, there are multiple ways to derive the Navier-Stokes
equation. This note shows how to derive the equation by starting with a fluid particle and
applying Newton’s second law. Thus, the result will be the non-conservation form of the
equation. Because the derive is complex, we omit some of the technical details.
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Step 1: Select a fluid particle

Select a fluid particle in a flowing fluid. Imagine that the particle has the shape of a cube.
Assume the dimensions are infinitesimal and that the particle is at the position (k, l, n)
at the instant shown.
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Step 2: Apply Newton’s second law

Regarding the forces, the two categories are body forces and surface forces. The only
possible surface forces are the pressure force uv, wand the shear force (v- ). Assume that
the only body force is the weight (x ).

v = _y
Sum of forces on a particle = ( mass ) × ( acceleration )
Body force + Surface force = _y = a∀y
(∀ = volume)
rR
x + v. + v/ = a∀
rf
(x = _{ = a∀{)
rR
a∀{ + v. + v/ = a∀
rf
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Step 3: Analyze the pressure force

To begin, consider the forces on the x-faces of the particle.

The net force due to pressure on the x-faces is:

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v. = |b

v,01 = }| ∆1 (b) −| ∆1 (b)~ ∙Ä

10 13
! !

= o| ∆1 −| ∆1 p ∙ ∆k ∙ ∆l ∙ Ä
10 13
! !
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Simplify above equation by applying a Taylor series expansion (twice) and neglecting
higher order term to give:

e|
v.01 = (∆k∆l∆n)Ä
ek

Repeat this process for the y-faces and z-faces, and combine results to give:

e| e| e|
v.0455 = − o (∆k∆l∆n)Ä + (∆k∆l∆n)Ç + (∆k∆l∆n)Ép
ek el en
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Simplify it and then introduce vector notation to give:

e| e| e|
v. = − o Ä + Ç+ Ép (∆k∆l∆n) = −∇|(∆k∆l∆n)
ek el en

It reveals a physical interpretation of the gradient:

Gradient of the pressure Net pressure force on a fluid particle

=
field at a point Volume of the particle
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Step 4: Analyze the shear force

The shear force is the net force on the fluid particle due to shear stresses. Shear stress is
caused by viscous effects and is represented mathematically as in Figure below. This
figure shows that each face of the fluid particle has three (3) stress components. For
example, the positive x-faces has three stress components, which are á11 , á16 and á17 .
The double subscript notation describes the direction of the stress component and the
face on which the component acts.

For example:
o á11 is the shear stress on the x-faces in the k-direction
o á16 is the shear stress on the x-faces in the l-direction
o á17 is the shear stress on the x-faces in the n-direction
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Shear stress is a type of mathematical entity called

a second order tensor. A tensor is analogous to but
more general than a vector.

Example: A zeroth order tensor is a scalar, a first

order tensor is a vector. A second order tensor has
magnitude, direction and orientation (where
orientation describes which face the stress acts
on)
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To find the net shear force on the particle, each stress component is be multiplied by area,
and the forces are added. Then, a Taylor series expansion is applied and the result is that:

eá11 eá16 eá17

⎡ç + + é⎤
⎢ ek ek ek ⎥
v1,-894"
⎢ eá61 eá66 eá67 ⎥
v/894" v
= v/ = à 6,-894" â = ⎢ç + + é⎥ (∆k∆l∆n)
el el el
v7,-894" ⎢ ⎥
eá eá eá
⎢ ç 71 + 76 + 77 é ⎥
⎣ en en en ⎦
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This can be written in invariant notation as:

v/894" = v/ = (∇ ∙ á)∀= udiv(á)w∀

where the terms on the right side represent the divergence of the stress tensor times the
volume of the fluid particle.
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It reveals the physics of the divergence when it operates on the stress tensor. Note that
this is the third physical interpretation of the divergence operator. This is because the
physics of a mathematical operator depend on the context in which the operator is used.

Divergence of the Net shear force on a fluid particle

=
stress tensor Volume of the particle
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Step 5: Combine terms

Substitute the shear force and pressure force into Newton’s second law of motion. Then,
divide by the volume of the fluid particle to give:

_y = v
rR
a(∀) = a∀{ + v. + v/
rf
= a∀{ − ∇|(∆k∆l∆n) + (∇ ∙ á)∀
= a{(∀) − ∇|(∀) + (∇ ∙ á)(∀)
Divide with volume, (∀)
rR
a = a{ − ∇| + ∇á
rf

This is the differential form of the linear momentum equation without any assumption
about the nature of the fluid. The next step involves modifying this equation to that it
applies to a Newtonian fluid.
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Step 6: Assume a Newtonian fluid

Stokes in 1845 figured out a way to write the stress tensor in terms of the rate-of-strain
tensor of the flowing fluid. The details are omitted here. After Stokes’ results are
introduced, assume constant density and viscosity, above equation becomes:

rR
a = a{ − ∇| + ∇á
rf

Above equation can be specifically written as:

+" +" +" +" ∂7 ∂8!! ∂8"! ∂8#!

k − _ï_ñófN_ !2 +" +' + 3 4 = !5! − + + +
+0 +( +$ +% +( +( +$ +%

+' +' +' +' ∂7 ∂8!" ∂8"" ∂8#"

l − _ï_ñófN_ !2 +" +' + 3 4 = !5" − + + +
+0 +( +$ +% +$ +( +$ +%

+3 +3 +3 +3 ∂7 ∂8!# ∂8"# ∂8##

n − _ï_ñófN_ !2 +" +' +3 4 = !5# − + + +
+0 +( +$ +% +% +( +$ +%
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It may be noted that the last three convective terms on the RHS of above mention
equations make it highly non-linear and complicates the general analysis. A simplification
is possible for considering an incompressible flow of Newtonian fluid where the viscous
stresses are proportional to the element strain rate and coefficient of viscosity (ò) . For
an incompressible flow, the shear terms may be written:

+" +" +(
8!! = 2: 8!" = 8"! = :2 + 4
+( +$ +(

+' +3 +"
8"" = 2: 8!# = 8#! = : 2 + 4
+$ +( +%

+3 +' +3
8## = 2: 8"# = 8#" = : 2 + 4
+% +% +$
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Thus, the differential momentum equation for Newtonian fluid with constant density
and viscosity is given by:

;" ∂7 ∂$ " ∂$ " ∂$ "

k − _ï_ñófN_ ! = !5! − + : * $ + $ + $.
;0 +( +( +$ +%

;' ∂7 ∂$ ' ∂$ ' ∂$ '

l − _ï_ñófN_ ! = !5" − + : * $ + $ + $.
;0 +$ +( +$ +%

;3 ∂7 ∂$ 3 ∂$ 3 ∂$ 3
n − _ï_ñófN_ ! = !5# − + : * $ + $ + $.
;0 +% +( +$ +%
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It is a second order, non-linear partial differential equation and is known as Navier-Stokes

equation. In vector form, it may be represented as:

ôc
a = a{ − ∇| + µ∇! c
ôf

where ∇! c is a mathematical operator that is called the Laplacian of the velocity field.

As a conclusion, this is the Navier-Stokes equation.

ôc
a = a{ − ∇| + µ∇! c
ôf
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Step 7 : Interpret the physics

The physics of the Navier-Stokes equation are:

ôc
a = a{ − ∇| + µ∇! c
ôf
Mass of the particle Weight of the Net pressure force Net shear force on
times acceleration of particle divided by on the particle the particle divided
the particle divided by its volume. divided by its by its volume.
the volume of the volume.
particle.

Note the dimensions and units:

Force ú É{
Dimension = = ;= ! !
Volume _ _ ∙ù
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Navier-Stokes equation (constant properties) for Cartesian coordinates is:

eN eN eN eN e| e!N e!N e!N

ao +N +R + m p = a{1 − + ò ç ! + ! + !é
ef ek el en ek ek el en

eR eR eR eR e| e!R e!R e!R

ao +N +R + m p = a{6 − + ò ç ! + ! + !é
ef ek el en el ek el en

em em em em e| e!m e!m e!m

ao +N +R +m p = a{7 − +òç ! + + é
ef ek el en en ek el ! en !
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EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

Cartesian coordinates:

GH G(HL) G(HO) G(HQ)

0= + + +
GI GN GP GR

Polar coordinates:

GH 1 G G 1 G
0= + (HL! U) + (HL" ) + (HL# )
GI U GU GR U GV
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Navier-Stokes equation (constant properties) for Cartesian coordinates is:

[ G G G G
= +L +O +Q
[I GI GN GP GR

$
G$ G$ G$
∇ = $+ $+ $
GN GP GR

GL GL GL GL Ga G$L G$L G$L

H] +L +O + Q ^ = H_% − + b c $ + $ + $d
GI GN GP GR GN GN GP GR

GL GL GL GL 1 Ga b G $ L G $ L G $ L
+L +O +Q = _% − + c + + d
GI GN GP GR H GN H GN $ GP $ GR $

[L 1 Ga
= _% − + e(∇$ )L
[I H GN
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GO GO GO GO Ga G$O G$O G$O

H] +L +O + Q ^ = H_& − + b c $ + $ + $d
GI GN GP GR GP GN GP GR

GO GO GO GO 1 Ga b G $ O G $ O G $ O
+L +O +Q = _& − + c + + d
GI GN GP GR H GP H GN $ GP $ GR $

[L 1 Ga
= _& − + e(∇$ )O
[I H GP

GQ GQ GQ GQ Ga G$Q G$Q G$Q

H] +L +O +Q ^ = H_" − + bc $ + $ + $d
GI GN GP GR GR GN GP GR

GQ GQ GQ GQ 1 Ga b G $ Q G $ Q G $ Q
+L +O +Q = _" − + c + + d
GI GN GP GR H GR H GN $ GP $ GR $

[Q 1 Ga
= _" − + e(∇$ )Q
[I H GR
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CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Recall the integral relation of energy equation for a fixed control volume:

e° e |
†̇ − ẋ/ − ẋ< = = ç¢ ñar∀é + ¢ oñ + p a(c ∙ ó) rb (1)
ef ef =< =/ a

†̇ = Rate of heat energy added to the control volume

ẋ/ = Time derivative of shaft work in the control volume

ẋ< = Time derivative of work done by viscous stress in the control volume

e°
= Rate of change of energy in the system
ef
£c = Control volume
£§ = Control surface
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Figure 1

If the control volume happens to be an elemental system as shown in Figure 1, then

there will be no shaft work term uẋ/ = 0w .
Denoting the energy per unit volume as:
1
ñ = N• + c ! + {n
2
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The net energy flow across the six control surface can be calculated as below:

Face Inlet energy flow Outlet energy flow

| | e |
k aN oñ + p rlrn ¶aN oñ + p + (aN) oñ + p rkß rlrn
a a ek a
| | e |
l aR oñ + p rkrn ¶aR oñ + p + (aR ) oñ + p rlß rkrn
a a el a
| | e |
n am oñ + p rkrl ¶am oñ + p + (am) oñ + p rnß rkrl
a a em a

Hence, Eq.(1) can be written as:

G a G a G a G a
ȯ − q̇' = k H ]r + ^ + (HL) ]r + ^ + (HO ) ]r + ^ + (HQ) ]r + ^l sNsPsR (2)
GI H GN H GP H GR H
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With the help of continuity equation and similar analogy considered during the
derivation of momentum equation, Eq.(2) can be simplified as:

rñ
†̇ − ẋ< = ¶a + c ∙ (∇|)ß rkrlrn (3)
rf

If one considers the energy transfer as heat u†̇ w through pure conduction, the Fourier’s
law of heat conduction can be applied to the elemental system.

S = −É∇® (4)

Where É is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.

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The heat flow passing through x-face is shown in Figure 2, and for all the six faces, it is
summarized in the following table:
Face Inlet energy flow Outlet energy flow
e
k S1 rlrn ¶S1 + (S1 )rkß rlrn
ek
e
l S6 rkrn ¶S6 + uS6 wrkß rkrn
el
e
n S7 rkrl ¶S7 + (S7 )rkß rkrl
en
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The net heat flux can be obtained by the difference in inlet and outlet heat fluxes.

e e e
̇
† = − ¶ (S1 ) + uS w + (S7 )ß rkrlrn
ek el 6 en

= −(∇ ∙ S )rkrlrn
= ∇ ∙ (É∇®) rkrlrn (5)

The rate of work done by the viscous stresses on the left x-faces as shown in the Figure 2
is given by:

ẋ< = −m1 rlrn

= −uNá11 + Rá16 + má17 wrlrn (6)

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In the similar manner, the net viscous rates are obtained and is given by:

# # #
7̇% = − 9 ;5<&& + $<'' + =<## > + ;5<'& + $<'' + =<'# > + ;5<#& + $<#' + =<## >@ A:A?A)
#: #? #)

= −∇uc ∙ á>? wrkrlrn (7)

Then, substitute Eq.(5) and Eq.(7) into Eq.(3),

rñ
a + c ∙ ∇| = ∇ ∙ (É∇®) + ∇ ∙ uc ∙ á>? w (8)
rf

The second term in the RHS of Eq.(8) can be written in the following term,

∇ ∙ uc ∙ á>? w = c ∙ u∇ ∙ á>? w + Φ (9)

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Here, Φ is known as the viscous-dissipation function. For Newtonian incompressible

viscous fluid, this function as the following form.

GL $ GO $ GQ $ GO GL $ GQ GO $ GL GQ $
Φ = µ m2 ] ^ + 2 ] ^ + 2 ] ^ + ] + ^ + ] + ^ +] + ^ n (10)
GN GP GR GN GP GP GR GR GN

Since all the terms in Eq.(10) are quadratic, so the viscous dissipation terms are always
positive, the the flow always tends to lose its available energy due to dissipation.

When Eq.(9) is used in Eq.(8), simplified using linear-momentum equation and the terms
are rearranged, then the general form of energy equation is obtained for Newtonian
viscous fluid.

rN
ρ + |(∇ ∙ c ) = ∇ ∙ (É∇®) + Φ (11)
rf
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For analysis point of view, the following valid approximations can be made for Eq.(11)

rN ≈ ≠< r®

≠@ , ò , É and a are constant

r®
ρ≠@ = É∇! ® + Φ (13)
rf

Where,
r® e® e® e® e®
= +N +R +m
rf ef ek el en

The specific heats of gases are given as ≠, and ≠@ at constant pressure and constant
volume respectively while solids and liquids are having only single value for specific heat.