Geoinformatics of Core Analysis

Written and Compiled by

Wahid Mia
Petrophysical Core Analysist (Geologist)
January, 2017
Preface
The topics enclosed in this book represent a review of modern approaches and practical methods for
analysing various problems related to geoinformatics of core analysis.
The book contains introductory outsets of core analysis (1st section). The book is related to petrophysics
(section 2nd to 10th), and related to important methods in core analysis, namely Fluid Saturation (4th
section), Porosity (5th section) & Permeability (6th section). Electric Test in porous media is presented
through different examples using various mathematical techniques (9th section). Different capillary
pressure measurements are discussed in capillary pressure test (10th section). Classification & description
of several methods used in Numerous Supplementary Tests are associated with examples (8th section). An
importan section explains about the key geostatistical concept & measure of reservoir heterogeneity and
their applications in statistical core analyses (12th section). The last & final section (13th section) contains a
list of some of the most commonly used parameters & systems of units used in core analysis and also
includes technical report writing practice.
The 1st section gives some basic definitions of core analysis & its requirements for different technical
disciplines and tries to focus on some important features.
The 2nd section is a brief planning core analysis program, with some core analysis objective. This section
contains types of core samples & analysis and their related procedures.
The 3rd section, Geological Screening and Preparation of the Core, describes how the condition & nature of
core samples can be documented through core gamma logs & various imaging techniques and how
samples should be selected & prepared for basic testing. Also covered in the 3rd section are methods of
preserving samples prior to testing, and procedures for cleaning & drying samples.
The 4th section, Fluid saturation, explains how it can be determined on different types of samples.
The 5th section introduces porosity and some examples of experiments used to estimate porosity. Some
porosity measurements on core plugs by different description methods are also given.
The 6th section, Permeability Determination, explains the theory & methods for measurement of
permeability of porous media to a single phase. A full description of Darcy's law is given and some
examples of its use are described. Measurements of permeability (both gas & liquid) are exemplified and
together with laminar & turbulent gas flow, some additional factors affecting permeability are discussed.
The 7th section is meant as an introduction to basic concepts of relative permeability. Relative permeability
measurements to two or three phases are not covered in this section. There has been no attempt made, to
give a broad & consistent description of relative permeability in this book.
The 8th section, Supplementary Tests of core analysis, covers determination of grain size, brine salinity, oil
gravity & acid solubility.
The 9th section introduces electrical resistivity properties or measurements in porous media are presented
through different examples using various measurement techniques and effects on different media on it.
Resistivity interpretation gives a clue to setup a graphical representation of porosity-formation resistivity
factor relationship and this rule is invented by me & represented.
The 10th section discusses capillary pressure measurement methods with comparison and also wettability.
Examples of the capillary effect & phenomena are given and different experimental techniques are given.
The 11th section introduces some basic aspects of rock compressibility related to reservoir rock & fluids.
The examples are related to the behaviour of porous reservoir rocks & core samples under lab conditions.
The 12th section, Core analyses in statistics, explains about hydraulic units, global hydraulic elements, the key
geostatistical concept & measure of reservoir heterogeneity and their applications, quantitative & statistical
analyses and their graphical representation in histograms, the two main petrophysical parameters viz,
porosity & permeability frequency distribution.
The 13th section, core analysis reporting practice, supplies forms to assist in recording the details of core
handling & testing methodology that could be critical in interpreting basic core analysis data. A somewhat
simplified derivation of the report presentation for three important reporting format is presented, i.e.,
tabular report, statistical graphical report & digital report. Quality assurance or quality control is used and
its study plans, steps & elements of good laboratory practice are presented. Some few nomenclature &
conversion factors are included at the end of this part.
The 14th & final section, Glossary, covers the extra topics about different terms, meanings &/or definitions
of the core analysis.
This book is firmly aimed at students of geological science & petroleum or reservoir engineering looking
for a practical understanding of the background and workflows required to complete a petrophysical study
of a well, a reservoir or a field. This book does not contain complicated mathematical equations or calculus
and possibly an inspiration for further reading. The mathematical prerequisites required are minimal,
though necessary. The student should know the elements of algebra (especially linear) & statistics and also
be acquainted with differential equations & methods of their solution. The content is based on the large
experience of IFP & Core Laboratories concerning routine core analysis (RCAL) & special core analysis
(SCAL), and all the recent publications on the subject, mainly in the literature of the society of core
analysis (SCA). A reference list is given at the end of the book. The book does not cover all the relevant
literature, nor is the reference list intended to be a bibliography. Only some necessary references and key
publications are included in the reference list.
 Table of Contents
1 Introductory Outsets of Core Analysis
1.1 General 01
1.2 Petrophysical Properties 02
1.2.1 Basic Petrophysical or Routine Core Analytical Properties 02
1.2.2 Advanced Modelling or Special Core Analytical Properties 03
1.3 Important of Core Analysis 04
Fig. 1.1: Core Analysis Requirements for Different Technical Disciplines 01
Fig. 1.2: Petrophysical Instruments 01
Fig. 1.3: RCAL Instruments 03
Fig. 1.4: SCAL Systems 04
Table 1.1: RCAL and Supplementary Measurements 02
Table 1.2: SCAL tests 02

2 Planning Core Analysis Program

2.1 General 05
2.1.1 Types of Core Samples 05
2.1.2 Core Analysis Techniques 05
2.1.3 Making of Cylindrical Cores 05
2.1.4 Basic Requirements for Sample Selection for Core Test 05
2.2 Classification of Core Analysis 06
2.2.1 Classification of Routine Core Analysis 06
2.2.2 Classification of Special Core Analysis Depending on the Wettability State 06
2.2.3 Typical Tests of Special Core Analysis 07
2.3 Core Analysis Laboratory Procedure for Plug Preparation 07
Fig. 2.1: Schematic Guide for plug sampling 06
Table 2.1: Core Sample Types 05
Table 2.2: Frequency or Spacing for Sample Selection 05

3 Geological Screening and Preparation of the Cores

3.1 General 09
3.2 Rock or Core Description 09
3.3 Core Gamma Logger (both Surface & Spectral) 10
3.3.1 Principle of Core Gamma Logs and Core Spectral Gamma Logs 10
3.4 Core Photography and Imaging System 11
3.4.1 Core Photography System 11
3.4.2 Core Imaging 12
3.4.3 X-Ray Techniques 14
3.4.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 15
3.5 Basic Core Analysis - Core Sampling and Core Preparation 15
3.5.1 Principle 15
3.5.2 Sample Cutting, Trimming and Mounting 15
3.6 Core Cleaning and Aging 16
3.7 Core Drying 19
3.7.1 Drying Methods 20
3.7.2 Types of Drying Oven 20
3.8 Sample Preservation 20
Fig. 3.1: Core Gamma Ray Logger 10
Fig. 3.2: Example of Gamma Report 11
Fig. 3.3: Digital Core Photography & Imaging System and Core WL & UV Photograph of Whole-
slabbed Core & Core Imaging Outputs 12
Fig. 3.4: An Illustration of CT Scanner Principle 14
Fig. 3.5: Core Cutting Saws 16
Fig. 3.6: Core Drill Press, Trimming Saw & Endface Grinder and Radial Core Slabbing Saw 16
Fig. 3.7: Soxhlet Distillation Extractor 17
Fig. 3.8: Extrator‟s Schematic Diagram of (a) Soxhlet & (b) Dean-Stark 18
Fig. 3.9: Schematic Diagram of Vacuum Distillation Apparatus 19
Fig. 3.10: Aging Cell or Wettability Restoration Apparatus 19
Fig. 3.11: Humidity Oven, Vacuum Oven and Hot Drying Oven 20
Table 3.1: Selected solvents & their use 17
Table 3.2: Core Sample Drying Methods 19

4 Fluid Saturation
4.1 Definition of Fluid Saturation 21
4.2 Distillation Extraction Method (Dean Stark) 21
4.2.1 Plug Samples 21
4.2.2 Full Diameter Cores 23
4.3 Retort Method at Atmospheric Pressure - Retorting or Basic Procedure 23
4.4 Experiments 26
Fig. 4.1: Dean-Stark Apparatus 23
Fig. 4.2: Multiple Samples Retort System 24
Fig. 4.3: Core Retort Ovens and Core Saturation Measurement 24
Fig. 4.4: Retort Oil Correction Curve and Retort Water Recovery versus Time & Temperature 25
Fig. 4.5 Dean-Stark Distillation Extraction Apparatus 26
Table 4.1: Rock Type and Recommended Fluid Saturation Testing Method(s) 21

5 POROSITY
5.1 General Aspects 29
5.1.1 Porosity Types 29
5.1.2 Porosity in Rocks 30
5.1.3 Introductory Comments/Equations 31
5.1.3.1 Methodology 31
5.1.3.2 Porosity Types according to PSD 31
5.1.3.4 Interpretation or Utility Limits of Porosity, or Porosity Range 32
5.1.3.4 Porosity phenomena or Terminology 32
5.2 Porosity Measurements on core plugs by different description methods 34
5.2.1 Calliper System 35
5.2.2 Mercury Pycnometer 36
5.2.3 Mercury Immersion System 36
5.2.4 Archimedes' (Buoyancy) With Fluids Other Than Mercury 37
5.2.5 Bulk Volume Calculated by Summing Direct Measurements of Grain & Pore Volume 38
5.3 Pore Volume Measurements 38
5.3.1 Total Pore Volume from Disaggregated Sample Grain Density 38
5.3.1.1 Dry Method for Grain Density/Grain Volume 38
5.3.2 Effective Pore Volume of Aggregated Samples 38
5.3.2.1 Grain Volume Measurement 38
5.3.2.1.1 Boyle's Law Double-Cell (Matrix Cup) Method for Grain Volume 38
5.3.2.2 Void Volume Measurement 40
5.3.2.2.1 Boyle's Law Single Cell Method for Direct Pore Volume 40
5.3.2.2.2 Summation of Fluids Porosity 42
5.3.2.2.2.1 Fluid Summations Method - Dean-Stark Method 42
5.3.2.2.2.2 Fluid Summations Method - Retort Method 43
5.3.2.2.3 Liquid Saturation Method 43
5.3.2.2.4 Grain Density Measurement by Gas Expansion Pycnometer Method 45
5.3.2.2.5 Bulk Density Determination 46
5.4 Experiment 46
Fig. 5.1: (a) Cubic packing 47.6% porosity (b) Rhombic packing 25.9% porosity (c) Cubic packing
of two grain sizes & (d) typical sand with irregular grain shape 29
Fig. 5.2: Cubic/rounded, loosely packed, sorted, angular sand with irregular grain shape, closely
packed/rhombohedral & unsorted irregular cubic packing of multiple grain sizes 29
Fig. 5.3: Porosity Classifications (Genetic) 30
Fig. 5.4: Definition of Porosity & REV and Sediment compaction burial & porosity change 31
Fig. 5.5: The Effect of Clay Distribution on Porosity in a Shaly Sand 32
Fig. 5.6: Petrophysical Porosity Model 33
Fig. 5.7: Total & Effective Pore Volumes as Defined by Core & Log Analysts 33
Fig. 5.8: Porosity Concepts in shaly sand 34
Fig. 5.9: Volumetric Mercury Displacement Pump 36
Fig. 5.10: Archimedes Mercury Immersion Apparatus 37
Fig. 5.11: Archimedes' (Buoyancy) With Fluids Other Than Mercury, Apparatus 37
Fig. 5.12: Schematic Diagrams of Double-cell Boyle's Law Helium Porosimeter 39
Fig. 5.13: Schematic Diagrams of Isostatic Load Cell for Direct Pore Volume Determination 40
Fig. 5.14: Laboratory Hydrostatic & Reservoir Loading Schematic 42
Fig. 5.15: Pore Volume Measurement by the Liquid Saturation Method 44
Fig. 5.16: Gas Expansion Porosimeter and Principle of Measurement of the Grain Volume in the
Rock by Gas Expansion 45
Fig. 5.17: Helium Porosimeters for effective porosity measurement 47
Fig. 5.18: Helium Porosimeter‟s Schematic Diagrams based on the Boyle's Law 47
Fig. 5.19: Helium Grain Volume Instrument Schematic 48
Fig. 5.20: Diagram of a Double Chamber Helium Porosimeter 49
Fig. 5.21: A Schematic of the Double-Cell Boyle's Law Porosimeter and Flow Diagram of apparatus 49

Fig. 5.23: Hydrostatic Load Cell and its Schematic Diagram for direct measurement of Vp 50
Fig. 5.24: Flow Diagram of Boyle's Law Apparatus 50
Fig. 5.25: Schematic of an Isothermal Experiment of PoroPerm - KEYPHI and a Symbolic
PoroPerm Operational Components or Parameters Illustration 51
Fig. 5.26: Initial and Final Conditions in KeyPhi 51
Fig. 5.27: Mercury Porometer & Mercury Injection Pump and Porosity vs. Mercury Saturation Graph 52
Fig. 5.28: Micrometric Porosimeter 54
Fig. 5.29: Typical Mercury Pycnometer Schematic 54
Table 5.1: Porosity Utility Limits at ambient and reservoir overburden condition 32
Table 5.2: Bulk, Grain & Pore Volume Directory 35

6 PERMEABILITY
6.1 Introduction 57
6.2 Basic Theory 58
6.2.1 Darcy's Law 59
6.2.2 Ideal Gas Flow 60
6.2.3 Compressible fluid (gas) 61
6.2.4 High Velocity (Forchheimer) effects 61
6.2.5 Klinkenberg Effect 62
6.3 Permeability Units 63
6.4 Terminology 64
6.5 Permeability Measurement 64
6.6 Theory of Permeability Measurements 65
6.6.1 Steady-State Permeability Equations for Gases 66
6.6.2 Steady-State Permeability Equations for Liquids 66
6.7 Theory and Application of Steady-state Permeability Measurements 67
6.7.1 Steady-State Permeability Measurements for Gases 67
6.7.1.1 Axial, Steady-State Flow of Gases 67
6.7.1.2 Steady-State Probe Permeability Measurements with Gases 70
6.7.1.3 Transverse, Steady-State Flow of Gases 71
6.7.1.4 Radial, Steady-State Flow of Gases 72
6.7.2 Steady-State Permeability Measurements for Liquids 73
6.7.2.1 Steady-State Liquid Permeability Measurements with an Imposed Flow Rate 74
6.8 Practical Applications for Unsteady-state Permeability Measurements 74
6.8.1 Transient Pressure Techniques for Gases 74
6.8.1.1 Pulse-Decay, Axial Gas Flow 74
6.8.1.2 Pressure-Falloff, Axial Gas Flow 75
6.8.1.3 Pressure Falloff, Probe Permeability Measurements with Gases 76
6.8.2 Transient Pressure Techniques for Liquids 77
 6.9 Instruments Calibration 78
6.9.1 Calibration of Pressure Transducer 78
6.9.2 Mass Flow Meters Calibration 78
6.9.3 Calibration of Reference Volume 79
6.10 Experiments 79
Fig. 6.1: A substance with interconnecting pores and A substance with isolated pores 57
Fig. 6.2: Darcy's Experiment (1856) and the Darcy Apparatus (after Hubert, 1953) 59
Fig. 6.3: Experimental Setup 60
Fig. 6.4: Linear flow of an ideal gas in sand-filled tube and rectangle 60
Fig. 6.5: Gas Permeability Experimental Setup 61
Fig. 6.6: Klinkenberg Correction and Effects 63
Fig. 6.7: Schematic of Permeability Apparatus for axial flow of gas 67
Fig. 6.8: Simplified Flow Diagram for low pressure, axial gas flow Permeability Measurements 68
Fig. 6.9: Schematic of Low-Pressure Hassler Core Holder 68
Fig. 6.10: Schematic Cross-sectional Illustration of the High-Pressure CH Assembly 69
Fig. 6.11: Steady-State Probe (Mini-) Permeameter and its Schematic 70
Fig. 6.12: Dimensionless Geometric Factor for measurements with Probe Permeameter 70
Fig. 6.13: Transverse flow configuration for gases or liquids and its Dimensionless Geometric factor 71
Fig. 6.14: Hassler Core Holder for transverse Permeability measurements 72
Fig. 6.15: Schematic for inward radial flow and Full-Diameter radial flow Permeameter 72
Fig. 6.16: Outline of Pulse Decay Permeability Testing Setup and its Schematics 75
Fig. 6.17: Schematic of Pressure-Falloff Gas Permeameter 76
Fig. 6.18: Schematic of Pressure-Falloff Probe Permeameter 77
Fig. 6.19: Schematic of Liquid Pulse-Decay Permeameter 78
Fig. 6.20: The Schematic Diagrams of Hassler Type Core Holder and Constant Head Permeameter 79
Fig. 6.21: Gas Viscosity as a function of temperature 80
Fig. 6.22: Full Diameter Horizontal & Vertical Permeability Measurement Apparatus 80
Fig. 6.23: Gas Permeameter 81
Fig. 6.24: Diagram explaining parameters in the Darcy equation for incompressible liquid flow
and Schematic of Laboratory Apparatus for measuring permeability using air 81
Fig. 6.25: Liquid Permeameter 83
Fig. 6.26: Measurement of Permeability 84
Fig. 6.38: Schematic of Gas Permeameter 84
Fig. 6.39: Computation of Permeability 84
Table 6.1: Permeability Range at Different Condition 57
Table 6.2: Constants in Forchheimer or Darcy Equation with various sets of units 64
Table 6.3: Quick Selection & Reference Guide for Permeability Measurements using Gases 65
Table 6.4: Quick Selection & Reference Guide for Permeability Measurements using Liquids 66

7 Relative Permeability
7.1 Introduction 85
7.1.1 Effective permeability 86
7.1.2 Relative permeability 86
7.1.3 Residual Oil Saturation 88
7.2 Flow of Immiscible Fluids in Porous Media and its Equations 88
7.3 Relative Permeability Measurement Methods 89
7.3.1 Steady-state Method 89
7.3.2 Unsteady-state Method 90
7.3.3 Centrifuge Method 91
7.4 Experiments 92
Fig. 7.1: Schematic of unsteady-state and steady-state test method or water flood procedure 85
Fig. 7.2: Diagram of oil & water distribution in a water-wet rock under three conditions and
Relative Permeability Curves 86
Fig. 7.3: Water-wet and Oil-wet Relative Permeability Curves (Oil-Water Systems) 87
Fig. 7.4: Gas-Oil Relative Permeability Curves 87
Fig. 7.5: Gas-Water Relative Permeability Curves 87
Fig. 7.6: Water-oil Fractional Flow Curve (Welge) as a function of water saturation 88
Fig. 7.7: Experimental Apparatus for SS & USS relative permeability measurement 90
Fig. 7.8: Drainage and Imbibition Experiment 91
Fig. 7.9: Schematic Diagrams of Relative Permeability Apparatus 93

8 Numerous Supplementary Tests

8.1 General 95
8.2 Petrographic Analysis or Characterization 95
8.3 Grain Size Distribution - Sieve Analysis 95
8.3.1 Sieve Analysis (Mechanical Shaker) 95
8.3.2 Sieve Analysis (Sonic Shaker) 97
8.3.3 Sieve Analysis (Wet and Wet/Dry Combination) 98
8.3.4 Particle Size Analysis (Laser Diffraction) 98
8.3.5 Thin Section Petrography 98
8.3.5.1 Thin Section Measurement of Grain Size (Visual Technique) 98
8.3.5.2 Thin Section Measurement of Grain Size (Image Analysis) 99
8.3.5.3 X-Ray Diffraction & Fluorescence Analysi s 99
8.3.5.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy Analysis 101
8.3.6 Particle Size Analysis - Stoke's Law 103
8.3.7 Experiment 104
8.4 Oil Gravity 109
8.5 Oil Characterization - Chromatographic Method / HC Vaporization 110
8.6 Calcimetry or Acid Solubility 111
8.7 Core Water Salinity or Total Disolved Solids 112
8.7.1 Core Water Recovery 112
8.7.1.1 Centrifugation 112
8.7.1.2 Immiscible Fluid Flush 112
8.7.2 Water Extraction of Core Salt 113
8.7.3 Core Water Salinity Determination 113
8.7.3.1 Determination of Anion 113
8.7.3.2 RI Measurement 114
8.7.3.3 Brine or Water Resistivity Measurement 115
8.7.3.4 Determination of Cations 116
Fig. 8.1: Examples of Histogram for Reporting Sieve Analysis Data 97
Fig. 8.2: Examples of Graphical Forms for Reporting Sieve Analysis Data 97
Fig. 8.3: XRD Configuration-left, XRD patterns-right 101
Fig. 8.4: Diagrammatic Layout of the XRF Spectrometer and Schematic view of the measuring
chamber of the Micro-XRF Analyzer 101
Fig. 8.5: Schematic Drawing of a common SEM and a Typical CL System 102
Fig. 8.6: Assembly of the Sieve Trays for the Analysis of the GSD of the Sediments 105
Fig. 8.7: Sieve and Hydrometer Analysis 107
Fig. 8.8: Graphic Presentation of Pore Size Distribution Data 108
Fig. 8.9: Graphic Presentation of cumulative-frequency distribution curve data 108
Fig. 8.10: Sieve and Hydrometer Analysis GSD and GSD Curve 109
Fig. 8.11: Auto Calcimeter 111
Fig. 8.12: Automated Centrifuge 112
Fig. 8.13: RI Difference vs. Salinity (RI of Solution-RI of Distilled Water) 115
Fig. 8.14: Conversion Chart for Salinity Determination Resistivity versus Temperature & Salinity 115
Table 8.1: Screens and Sizes Equivalents 96
Table 8.2: Example of Sieve Analysis Data 96
Table 8.3: The Standard Size Classifications for sedimentary particles 106
Table 8.4: Data for Graphs 106
Table 8.5: Grain Size Distribution Data 107

9 RESISTIVITY
9.1 General 117
9.2 Electrical Resistivity Properties Measurement 117
9.2.1 Principle 117
 9.2.3 Procedures 117
9.2.4 Main Basic theory 118
9.2.5 Resistivity of Rocks 120
9.2.6 Archie's First Law (Formation Factor) 121
9.2.6.1 Measurement of Formation Factor and Cementation Factor 121
9.2.6.2 Depiction of measurement of formation resistivity factor and cementation factor 122
9.2.7 Archie's Second Law Partial (Water Saturation) 123
9.2.7.1 Measurement of Resistivity Index and Saturation Exponent 123
9.2.7.2 Depiction of measurement of resistivity index curve and saturation exponent 124
9.2.8 Combining Archie's Laws 124
9.3 Resistivity Interpretation 124
9.3.1 Indicative coefficient of correlation Estimation 124
9.3.2 Significance of correlation 125
9.3.3 Procedures of Correlation Coefficient Determination 125
9.4 Effects of Different Media or Parameters on Resistivity 127
9.5 Experiments 129
9.6 APPENDICES 133
9.6.1 Resistivity Factor Experimental Techniques 133
9.6.2 Resistivity Index Experimental Techniques 133
9.6.3 Resistivity Index Measurement Porous Plate Method 134
Fig. 9.1: Electrical Properties System at ambient & overburden conditions 118
Fig. 9.2: Plot of Formation Factor versus Porosity, illustrating variation in intercept „a‟ 118
Fig. 9.3: Formation Factor vs. Porosity illustrating variation in slope „m‟ 120
Fig. 9.4: An illustration of the Cementation Exponent Estimation 122
Fig. 9.5: Cross-plots of Formation Resistivity Factor versus Porosity 122
Fig. 9.6: An Illustration of the Saturation Exponent Estimation 123
Fig. 9.7: Cross-Plots of the Formation Resistivity Index versus Water Saturation in the pores 124
Fig. 9.8: Directional Diagram of Correlation Coefficient 125
Fig. 9.9: Scatter Diagrams of Correlation Coefficient 125
Fig. 9.10: Computation of the correlation coefficient Chart 127
Fig. 9.11: Effects of Brine Resistivity on Formation Factor and Water-saturated rock conductivity
as a function of water conductivity 127
Fig. 9.12: Effect of Overburden Pressure on Resistivity and Formation resitivity factor Vs.
Porosity shown in log-log graph 128
Fig. 9.13: Resistivity index versus water saturation for range of measured saturation exponents 129
Fig. 9.14: The Resistance Measurements Electrical Circuit with 4 & 2 Electrodes 129
Fig. 9.15: The Vacuum Pump & Manual Saturator and Automated Saturator 130
Fig. 9.16: Resistivity Measurement Setup at Ambient Conditions 133
Fig. 9.17: Formation Resistivity Factor Measurement Setup at Overburden Pressure 133
Fig. 9.18: Porous Plate Cell for rock desaturation and Air-Brine Capillary Pressure Measurement 134
Fig. 9.19: Capillary Pressure Desaturation Cell System 134
Fig. 9.20: An Illustration of the Porous Plate Method for Resistivity Index Measurement 134
Table 9.1: Porosity and Formation Resistivity Factor for 14 data 126
Table 9.2: Computation of the Deviations from Porosity and Formation Factor for 14 data 126

10 Capillary Pressure
10.1 General 135
10.2 Definitions 135
10.3 Capillary Pressure Measurement Techniques or Methods 138
10.3.1 Restored state cell capillary pressure 138
10.3.2 Centrifugal technique 140
10.3.3 Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure 141
10.3.4 Vapor Desorption 144
10.4 Experiments 144
10.5 Capillary phenomena 147
10.5.1 Surface and Interfacial Tension 147
10.5.2 Determination of Capillary Pressure Curve 148
 10.5.3 Contact Angle and Wettability 149
10.5.3.1 Definitions 149
10.5.3.2 Measurement of Wettability 150
10.6 Capillary Pressure Laboratory Data Correction or Conversion 155
10.7 Averaging Capillary Pressure Data 157
10.8 Effects of Properties on Capillary Pressure 159
10.9 Pore size distribution versus Capillary pressure curves 161
10.9.1 Calculation of pore size distribution 161
10.9.2 Calculation of permeability from capillary pressure curves 162
10.9.3 Calculation of capillary pressure from porosity & permeability 162
10.10 APPENDICES 163
10.10.1 Capillary Pressure Measurement Centrifuge Method 163
10.10.2 Wettability Measurements US Bureau Method or USBM Wettability Index Test 163
Fig. 10.1: Primary Drainage and Imbibition Capillary Pressure Curves 136
Fig. 10.2: Wetting fluid & nonwetting fluid and Fluid at pressure P2 into a tube saturated with a fluid
at pressure P1 138
Fig. 10.3: Porous Plate Apparatus and Pourous Diagram Method of measuring Capillary Pressure 139
Fig. 10.4: Capillary Pressure Schematic and Curves of porous plate method 139
Fig. 10.5: Capillary Pressure Centrifuge and Centrifuge Core Holder 140
Fig. 10.6: Illustration Centrifuge Rotor with CCTV 140
Fig. 10.7: Schematics of Centrifuge Method and Capillary pressure curve from centrifuge
measurements 141
Fig. 10.8: Saturation of Core with brine for drainage and with oil for imbibition experiments 141
Fig. 10.9: LPM Mercury Injection Apparatus Diagram and its Pressure Cell 142
Fig. 10.10: Automated Capillary Pressure Apparatus for mercury injection and Schematic of
Automated Mercury Injection High-Pressure Penetrometer 143
Fig. 10.11: Capillary Pressure Curve from mercury injection measurements and Dynamic Capillary
Pressure Apparatus 144
Fig. 10.12: The Porous Plate Method Assembly and the Porous Plate Diagram 145
Fig. 10.13: Diagram of Centrifuge System and its boundary conditions 145
Fig. 10.14: Graphical differentiation of SPcL -PcL curve to determine S-Pc curve 146
Fig. 10.15: Capillary equilibrium of a spherical cap, cohesive forces and surface tension definition 147
Fig. 10.16: Capillary Pressure Curve 148
Fig. 10.17: Interfacial tensions for water-oil-solid system at equilibrium 149
Fig. 10.18: The Wettability Definition of a brine-oil-solid surface according to contact angle &
spreading of liquid (blue) on flat, smooth solid: (a) complete wetting (spreading)
(b) high W (c)low W and (d) complete non-W (repulsion) 149
Fig. 10.19: Wettability Measurement on core samples 151
Fig. 10.20: Typical Capillary Pressure Curves or Diagrams used to characterize wettability and the
Relationships of Wettability Measurements by Amott & USBM Tests to Pc 152
Fig. 10.21: Sketch of Amott Wettability Scale 152
Fig. 10.22: Amott Wettability Measurement Sequence 152
Fig. 10.23: Effect of wettability on the area ratio of capillary-pressure curves 153
Fig. 10.24: Contact Angle as an indication of wettability and Contact Angles (less than 90º),
illustrations of a water-wet rock surface 154
Fig. 10.25: Schematic Diagram of Contact-Angle Measurement Setup 154
Fig. 10.26: Wettability by Contact Angle Measurement 154
Fig. 10.27: Combined Amott-USBM Measurement Curve 155
Fig. 10.28: Leverett‟s J-Function vs. Water Saturation 158
Fig. 10.29: Variation in Saturation Height for Different Permeabilities 158
Fig. 10.30: Effect of Permeability on Capillary Pressure 159
Fig. 10.31: Effects of Grain-Size Distribution on Capillary Pressure 160
Fig. 10.32: Imbibition and drainage capillary pressure curves illustrating hysteresis 160
Fig. 10.33: Effect of Contact Angle on Capillary Pressure 160
Fig. 10.34: Effect of Interfacial Tension 161
Fig. 10.35: Density Difference on capillary pressure and Capillary pressure in reservoirs 161
Fig. 10.36: Centrifuge Core Holder Assembly 163
Fig. 10.37: Diagram of Centrifuge System and its boundary conditions or properties 163
Fig. 10.38: USBM Wettability Measurement 164
Table 10.1: Surface tensions of some common fluid interfaces 147
Table 10.2: Fluid pair Wettability under reservoir & laboratory conditions and Typical Interfacial
Tension & Contact Angle Contacts 148
Table 10.3: Wettability (Fluid-Solid Interactions) preference expressed by Contact angle 150
Table 10.4: The Quantitative Relation between interfacial tension, contact angle and S 150
Table 10.5: Contact Angle Measurement 155
Table 10.6: Standard Interfacial Tension & Wetting Angle 156
Table 10.7: Capillary Pressure Conversions 156
Table 10.8: Typical Values for converting Hg/Air Capillary Pressure curves to Reservoir conditions
of oil/water 157
Table 10.9: Permeability Effect 159

11 Overburden Porosity and Permeability

11.1 General 165
11.2 Rocks or Pore Volume Compressibility 166
11.3 Kozeny-Carman Model for Permeability 166
Fig. 11.1: Rock Compressibility and Porosity at Stress 165
Fig. 11.2: Schematic of a Core Holder 166
Fig. 11.3: Computation of Rock Compressibility 166
Fig. 11.4: Experimental equipments for measuring pore volume compaction & compressibility 167
Fig. 11.5: Automated PVC System for compressibility 168

12 Core Analyses in Statistics

12.1 Introduction 169
12.2 Terminology 169
12.2.1 Measures of Central Tendency 169
12.2.2 Properties of Mean, Median & Mode 169
12.2.3 Geometric & Harmonic Mean 170
12.2.4 Weighted Average 171
12.2.5 Measures of Variability 174
12.2.6 Range, Variance & Standard Deviation 174
12.2.7 Coefficient of Variation 175
12.2.8 Descriptive Statistics from Grouped Data 176
12.2.9 Hydraulic Units 178
12.2.10 Hydraulic Flow Unit Techniques 179
12.2.11 Global Hydraulic Elements 179
12.3 Objectives of Core Analysis in Statistics 180
12.4 The Key Geostatistical Concept and Measure of Reservoir Heterogeneity 181
12.4.1 Porosity and Permeability Distributions 181
12.4.2 Variation between Averages 181
12.4.3 Coefficient of Variation 182
12.4.4 Variance 182
12.4.5 Correlation Coefficients 183
12.4.6 The Variogram 183
12.4.7 Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient 184
12.4.8 Lorenz Plot 184
12.5 Applications of the Geostatistical Concept and Measure of Reservoir Heterogeneity
in many fluvial reservoirs and Petrophysical Distributions in tidal facies 184
12.5.1 General 184
12.5.2 Applications of the Coefficient of Variation and Measure of Heterogeneity 185
12.5.3 Applications of the Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient 187
12.5.4 Applications of the Lorenz Plot 187
12.6 Statistical Analysis of X , SD (σ) and Cv in the Tipum Sandstone of Surma Basin 189
12.7 Graphical Representation of Statistical Data of Conventional Core Analysis in the
Tipum Sandstone 193
 12.7.1 Histograms 193
12.7.2 Ogive 195
12.7.3 Frequency Curves 196
Fig. 12.1: Flow Unit Concept: Geological & Petrophysical data used to define flow units and
Various Parameters in defining flow units 178
Fig. 12.2: Porosity versus Permeability Crossplot showing hydraulic units for routine core plugs 179
Fig. 12.3: Global Hydraulic Element „Basemap‟ Template 180
Fig. 12.4: Porosity, Permeability and Log Permeability distributions for a fluvial data set 182
Fig. 12.5: The Raw Data for a Variogram Model and a Semivariogram Model 184
Fig. 12.6: Various Connectivity Arrangements in fluvial reservoirs and an equivalent schematic
pressure derivative response to the scenarios 186
Fig. 12.7: Probability Plot for Dykstra-Parsons Permeability Variation Determination 187
Fig. 12.8: Illustration of the Lorenz Coefficient and the Flow Capacity Range of increasing
heterogeneity of the LP 188
Fig. 12.9: Determination of the Lorenz Coefficient 188
Fig. 12.10: Probability and Log Probability Graph 192
Fig. 12.11: Porosity Frequency Distribution for well W-1 195
Fig. 12.12: Permeability Frequency Distribution for well W-1 195
Fig. 12.13: Frequency Distribution and Cumulative Relative Frequency Curve 196
Table 12.1: Coring Bit Record 170
Table 12.2: Data of Table 12.1 for calculating Gm & Hm 171
Table 12.3 Porosity and Permeability Data of a Formation 173
Table 12.4: Data of Table 12.1 used for Example 2-5 175
Table 12.5: Grouped data of Table 12.1 177
Table 12.6: Hydraulic Unit Lower Boundaries for 10 GHEs and Colors for standard GHE 180
Table 12.7: Porosity and permeability Averages in fluvial sandstones 181
Table 12.8: Heterogeneity in porosity and permeability averages in fluvial sandstones 182
Table 12.9: Heterogeneity Classes Based on Cv 185
Table 12.10: Descriptive Statistics for horizontal core plugs 187
Table 12.11: Descriptive Statistics for core porosity 187
Table 12.12: Porosity and Permeability Data of Surma Basin 190
Table 12.13: Statistics of the Porosity Data 190
Table 12.14: Statistics of the Permeability Data 191
Table 12.15: Cumulative Frequency Calculations for the porosity data of Table 12.7 191
Table 12.16: Cumulative Frequency Calculations for the Permeability Data of Table 12.7 192
Table 12.17: The Results of Statistical Analysis Data for the studied wells 194
Table 12.18: Statistical Analysis of Porosity for well W-1 194
Table 12.19: Statistical Analysis of Plug/Core Permeability for well W-1 195
Table 12.20: Frequency Table for the bit records of Table 12.1 196

13 Core Analysis Reporting Practice

13.1 Introduction of Reporting 197
13.2 Tabular Report 199
13.3 Statistical Graphical Report 199
13.4 Digital Report 203
13.5 Quality Assurance Project Plan 204
13.5.1 QA/QC Practices 204
13.5.2 QA/QC Study Plan or Protocol 204
13.5.3 Step of QA 204
13.5.4 Elements of Good Laboratory Practice 205
13.6 Nomenclature and Conversion Factors 213
13.7 Technical Report 214
13.7.1 The Technical Report Writing Process (on Core Analysis) 214
Fig. 13.1: Normal or Gaussian (bell-shaped) distribution 198
Fig. 13.2: Core Analysis Log 201
Fig. 13.3: Permeability vs. Porosity 201
Fig. 13.4: Formation Factor-Porosity Cross-Plot for various values of the cementation exponent 202
Fig. 13.5: Formation Factor versus Percent Porosity for various reservoir characters 202
Fig. 13.6: Core Porosity versus Resistivity Crossplot 203
Fig. 13.7: Porosity-Permeability Relationship based on core samples from a reservoir 219
Fig. 13.8: Exemplary Crossplots of Permeability vs. Porosity 219
Fig. 13.9: The Tortuous Path through the pores in a core plug 222
Fig. 13.10: An Exemplary Sketch of Core Interval Log of a Petroleum Well 222
Fig. 13.11: Full Diameter Core Analysis 223
Table 13.1: Confidence Interval with Permeability Ranges 199
Table 13.2: Round Figuring Number of Data or Parameters 199
Table 13.3: Basic Core Analysis Laboratory Data 200
Table 13.4: Example of DCIS Logical File 203
Table 13.5: Basic Core Plug Analysis Report 206
Table 13.6: Basic Full Diameter Core Analysis Report 206
Table 13.7: Basic Sidewall Core Analysis Report 206
Table 13.8: Standard abbreviations for lithologic descriptions 212
Table 13.9: SI units, conversions & equations 213
Table 13.10: Exemplary Gas Field at a Glance 215
Table 13.11: Summary Data of Core Analysis 223

14 GLOSSARY 225

15 REFERENCES 263
 WAHID MIA
Manager (Geology, Petrophysics), Laboratory Division,
BAPEX (A Company of Petrobangla), Bangladesh.
Address (Home): H # 3/1, R # 8, BL # F, Banashree, Rampura, Dhaka-1219,
Address (Office): Plot # 4, Level # 2, BAPEX Bhaban, Kawran Bazar C/A,
Tejgaon, Dhaka-1215, Bangladesh.
+88-01717077731, +88-01191145558
[email protected], [email protected]

Father‟s Name : Late Rais Mia

Personal
Mother‟s Name : Late Haji Rezia Khanom
Profile
Date of Birth : August 5, 1972
Nationality : Bangladeshi
Sex : Male
Religion : Islam
Marital Status : Married
Educational MSc in Geology, 2nd class. (1995), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Background BSc (Hons‟) in Geology, 2nd class, (1994), University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
HSC (Higher Secondary Certificate) in Science, 1st Division (1990), Dhaka Board,
Bangladesh.
SSC (Secondary School Certificate) in Science, 1st Division (1988), Dhaka Board,
Bangladesh.
Working  Experienced in Conventional Core Analysis (such as routine & special core analysis of
Experiences different exploration & development wells of Bangladesh, viz, Titas well # 15,
Hobiganj well # 11, Shabazpur well # 2, 3, 4, Kailastila well # 6, Srikail well # 3 & 4,
Begumganj well # 3, Semutang well # 6, Rashidpur well # 8, 9, 10 & 12 etc.
 The experience duration is more over than 13 years as Core Analyst.
 Experienced in Coring operation observation at different exploration & development
hydrocarbon well in Bangladesh.
Training  Core Analysis Instrumentation training in PMRE, BUET, Bangladesh.
 Log Interpretation (In-House) in BAPEX, Bangladesh.
 Mudlogging Unit under Weatherford Inc. Pte. in Singapore.
 Poro-Perm (KePhi) System, Core Photography System, Resistivity Meter System from
Vinci Technologies (France).
 Petroleum Engineering for Geologists from M-Power Energy India (P) Ltd.
 Technical Report Writing on Core Analysis from Institute of Engineering, Bangladesh.
 Laboratory Analysis of Core from M-Power Energy India (P) Ltd of University of
Petrolum & Energy Studies (India).
Others  A book on “Coring and Core Analysis Manual” for BAPEX Laboratory works.

(Wahid Mia)