L01: Design as a Process
MEEN 601: Advanced Product Design
It is important to understand
engineering design as a process
Today we’ll look at the motivations for this
and common process models for design
Gotta know the lingo
BASIC CONCEPTS
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What is a “Process”?
Process [n] : a series of actions or steps taken to achieve a particular end.
Example: washing laundry More than one process can achieve a desired
outcome.
1. Sort clothes by washing requirements
(e.g., colors vs. whites) E.g.,: can send clothes out to a laundry service:
2. Load clothes into washer
3. Add detergent 1. Put clothes in laundry bag
4. Select desired cycle and run 2. Hang bag outside door for pick up
5. Move washed clothes to dryer 3. Retrieve laundered clothes from outside of door
6. Select desired cycle and run 4. Place clothes in closet
7. Remove clothes from dryer
8. Hang/fold clothes as required
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Process Models
A process model is a graphical representation of a process
• Multiple ways to represent a process model, ranging from less BPMN Example
to more formal
• Many tools allow you to create process models (e.g., MS
Project, MS Visio, Lucidchart, MagicDraw, etc.)
• Standards exist that include process modeling constructs (e.g.,
IDEF, DODAF, BPMN, SysML)
• For small group work, something as simple as a flow chart
often is sufficient
IDEF0 Example
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Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Processes
The difference between prescriptive and descriptive process is the
difference between the instructions and what you actually do.
Prescriptive Process: Sequence of actions one is to take to achieve a goal
Descriptive Process: Sequence of actions one took to achieve a goal
This distinction matters because it is common to deviate from
prescribed process by accident or on purpose
E.g., common to elaborate a prescriptive model by adding steps
that are missing or insufficiently detailed
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Question: What do you think are the main
steps/phases/tasks in a design process?
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Possible Organizing Principles for a
Design Process
Tasks (to be) Completed: needs analysis, Documentation Created: concept of operations,
requirements definition, functional modeling, idea requirements document, risk reports, change requests,
generation, concept selection, prototyping, etc. specifications document, etc.
Tools Used: CAD, CAE (FEA, CFD, etc.), Decisions Made: materials to use, sizes of parts,
requirements management system, simulation who to use as supplier, how much testing and which
software, optimization software, etc. tests to perform, which concept to use, who to
consider as customer, etc.
Knowledge Needed: customer needs, design
requirements, mechanics, dynamics, Who is Involved: various departments and teams
thermodynamics, etc. within an organization, other organizations, etc.
We will focus on processes based on tasks, but the other considerations
are important parts of an overall methodology.
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Design Methodology
Definitions for “Methodology”
[Oxford English Dictionary]
Originally: the branch of knowledge that deals with method generally or with the methods of a
particular discipline or field of study; (arch.) a treatise or dissertation on method; (Bot.) †systematic
classification (obs. rare). Subsequently also: the study of the direction and implications of empirical
research, or of the suitability of the techniques employed in it; (more generally) a method or body of
methods used in a particular field of study or activity.
[Merriam-Webster]
1. a body of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline;
a particular procedure or set of procedures
2. the analysis of the principles or procedures of inquiry in a particular field
So, design methodology can mean:
(1) methods (including processes) used to do design and (2) study of the same.
Both meanings relevant to this class.
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Why we care about process, part 1.
WICKED PROBLEMS
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“Wicked” Problems
• The tough (fun?) design problems exhibit the
characteristic of Wicked Problems as originally
described by Rittel (Rittel & Webber, 1973).
• Rittel and Webber’s 1973 formulation of wicked
problems in social policy planning identified ten
characteristics (see figure to right).
https://medium.com/age-of-awareness/facing-complexity-wicked-design-problems-ee8c71618966
https://understandinggroup.com/information-architecture/skirmishing-with-ill-defined-and-wicked-
problems/
https://csl4d.wordpress.com/wicked-problems/
Significance
• Wicked problems defy cookbook solutions and
plug-and-chug techniques
• Wicked problems involve multiple considerations
and perspectives
• Wicked problems may have incomplete,
contradictory or changing information
• Defining the problem is part of the problem
Engineering design methodology must support
the solution of wicked problems
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Why we care about process, part 2.
PEOPLE
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Process Models as a Communication Tool
A process model can serve as a roadmap for a project
Enables coordination of multiple engineers & tasks
Can support identification of dependencies, critical
paths, and traceability
A good design process model conveys key events and
their dependencies in a clear and understandable way
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Process to Support Novices
Novices:
• Inclined to a “solution-based” approach
• Tend to become fixated on initial design concept
Prescribed design processes can help improve performance
of novice designers
Research [Fricke, 96] shows that the best way to develop design ability is to use a process
that is both “structured and flexible” (they produced more different, and better designed
solutions)
Thus, a good design process is both structured and flexible
Organizing what we do
DESIGN PROCESS MODELS
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A Model of the Engineering Design
Process
What does this mean? Do you
think this model is useful? What
are its strengths and weaknesses?
Another Model
How does this compare to the model from the previous slide?
Side-by-side View
• Simple & easy to understand • More detailed
• Focus on what you do • Connects problem and solution
• Leaves much to the imagination • Not as easy to understand at a glance
• Still allows flexibility
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March’s Model
Three types of process that act together in order to
create a new design.
• Production: produces an initial design
proposal, from many possibilities, that is a
candidate to solve the design problem in hand
• Deduction: applies known theories and
understanding to predict the performance of a
design proposal.
• Induction: evaluates a design against
specification. Resulting changes and refinements
help generate a new design proposal
(production again).
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/engineering-
and-technology/design-and-innovation/design/design/content-section-3.3.1
March’s Model
Do I build a timber-frame house on my plot
of land, or a brick-built house (production
of a candidate idea)?
Some calculations of energy efficiency, cost
of labor, and a judgement on the resale value
leads me to a conventional UK design in brick
and glass (deductions about the idea).
Whilst planning a conservatory I hit on the
idea of using it to channel warm air into the
main living space, so refining the design
(induction to further design ideas).
http://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/engineering-
and-technology/design-and-innovation/design/design/content-section-3.3.1
A More Detailed Model
Starcevic et. Al (2006)
Archer’s Model French’s Model
Pahl & Beitz Model
From G. Pahl & W. Beitz, Engineering
Design: A Systematic Approach
Pahl & Beitz Model
Pahl & Beitz Model
Phases of an Engineering Design Project [Pahl & Beitz]
Planning and • What is the design problem? Who are the customers & stakeholders? What do they
Clarification want? Where can we get more info?
• Clarify desired high-level functionality
• Develop design requirements & objectives; develop project plan and schedule
Conceptual Design • Perform functional decomposition
• Allocate requirements to sub-functions (as needed)
• Identify “working principles” that achieve desired functions
• Combine various working principles into design concepts
• Evaluate design concepts and choose most promising
Embodiment Design • Identify physical implementations of design concept
• Evaluate alternative implementations and choose most promising
• Refine and improve
Detail Design • Generate parts lists & detailed production drawings
• Complete instructions for production, assembly, etc.
• Finalize documentation
Another View [Ullmann]
Product Discovery • Recognition of opportunity or need
• Technology push, market pull, product change (redesign)
Project Planning • Develop project plan (allocation of firm’s resources) and schedule
Product Definition • What is the design problem? Who are the stakeholders? What do they want?
Where can we get more info?
• Clarify desired high-level functionality
• Develop design requirements
Conceptual Design • Identify candidate means for achieving desired functionality
• Select most promising candidate for development
Product • Embodiment and detail design of product
Development • At end of this phase, product is ready for production
Product Support • Ongoing activities in support of full product lifecycle
• Not always practiced for every product
A Simplified Design Process
1. Identify a need
2. Create engineering representation of the need This part probably is
WHAT needs to be done? more important
3. Develop concepts for solution
HOW will it be done?
4. Embody concept(s) Probably what many
Ideas become physical artifacts or systems of you envision when
5. Document solution for production thinking about design
Iterate as necessary
Bottom Line
Pick up any two texts and you will Pick any two companies and you will
find two different design processes find two different design processes
Look more closely and you will find they all are very similar
We will predominantly use Pahl and Beitz terminology for major phases
If you understand the concepts, you will be able to relate other methodologies to
one you already know well.
Other Design Process Issues: Design
Reviews
Design Reviews:
• Common to have periodic reviews conducted by
managers, organizational leadership, clients, or
independent outside agencies
• Provides opportunity for formal feedback / course
correction
• A form of gate or milepost in a project
• (As you might imagine) more elaborate in larger projects
• A bad review can kill a project
Other Design Process Issues: Design
Reviews
Example design reviews conducted by U.S. Government (for acquisitions projects)
• Mission concept review
PDR: Demonstrate that preliminary design
• System requirements review
• Meets all system requirements
• Mission definition review
• Has acceptable risk
• Systems design review
• Is within cost & schedule constraints
• Preliminary design review
• Critical design review CDR:
• Production readiness review • Demonstrate design is sufficiently mature
• Test readiness review to begin full-scale production.
• System acceptance review • Still must be meeting requirements, is
• Flight readiness review within cost & schedule constraints, etc.
Other organizations have other terminology / review schedules
(NASA has twice as many named major reviews)
At NASA, you might see
something like this
Major reviews and
decision points are
indicated (blue and
orange triangles)
Oh my
WATERFALLS, VEES, SPIRALS, AND
MORE!
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• Activity trends from top down,
Waterfall Process Prototype left to right
• Movement in other direction
represents iteration
Phase 1 • Can model hierarchically, with
each box on this diagram being
its own waterfall process
Phase 2
Primary Flow Phase N
Secondary Flow
Pahl & Beitz Model in Waterfall Form
Planning &
Clarification
Conceptual
Design
Embodiment
Design
Primary Flow Detail
Design
Secondary Flow
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Simple to understand
• Simple to manage
Disadvantages:
• Rigid structure; does not allow for
overlapping phases
• Assumes requirements are well
known a priori / doesn’t work well
when requirements change often
Vee Model
• More specialized to Systems
Engineering
• Items at top deal with system-
level; closer to bottom of Vee
is more component focused
• Notice correspondence
between definition phases
(downward slope) and
integration phases (upward
slope)
• Notice product design is
subsumed by Vee
Terminology Note: Design vs. Systems
Engineering
“Systems Engineering is an interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of successful
systems. It focuses on defining customer needs and required functionality early in the development
cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while
considering the complete problem of operations, performance, test, manufacturing, cost & schedule,
training & support, and disposal.” [INCOSE]
• SE is broader than design. Includes design, but also
Huh? verification, test, etc.
• Successful design projects also involve many of these
steps, so the distinction is more in the methods used.
• SE tends to be “methodology heavy” and important
when projects are larger.
• Many concepts apply to both.
Vee Model
• Similar strengths/weaknesses as
waterfall
• Improvements over waterfall
include
– Potential for some overlapping
stages
– Explicit linking of definition and
verification stages
Spiral Model
• Described by Barry Boehm in
1986 in context of software
development
• Easily adapted to product
development
• Not intended as a literal process
model—i.e., usually is
concurrent rather than one
spiral flow
• Many variations/extensions exist
A More Elaborate Example: NASA’s SE
Engine
• From NASA Systems Engineering
Handbook
• On the elaborate side of what you
might see in industry
• Multiple concurrent processes that
interact
Questions?
