vi 4 Exploring Life Through Science—General Chemistry 1Main Idea: Motter exists in different physical Nature and States of Matter EQ: What makes matter solid, liquid, or gas? The modern knowledge of matter as being composed of atoms, and of still smaller fundamental Particles, resulted from a long history of suppositions, logical thinking, and experimentation. Particulate Nature of Matter The development of the theory that matter is made up of particles traces back ¢o the era of the cient philosophers, who began to question the beginnings of the world. The earliest belief of Greck philosophers was that matter was made up of a single element. Anaximenes (flourished c. 545 BCE) ced that this primal element was air; Thales of Miletus (flourished 6th century BCE) thought it water; and Heraclitus (c. 540-480 BCE) believed it was fire. From these initial ideas, Empedocles (c. 490-430 BCE) later proposed that all matter is made up of four fundamental elements—namely, earth, air, fire, and water. The varying proportions of these elements in different materials supposedly ndered the different characteristics and behavior of the materials. For instance, a stone was thought to contain mostly earth, while a rabbit was believed to contain large proportion of water and fire, ich makes it soft and gives it life. The problem with this idea, however, stemmed from the fact that en materials are broken down, they never resemble the fundamental elements Empedocles proposed. jowever, this idea introduced an important concept now known as the /aw of constant proportions, which rates that all things of the same type have the same proportions of the elements chat compose them. ‘Around 440 BCE, a new theory emerged when Greek philosophers Leucippus (flourished Sth century BCE) and his student Democritus (c. 460-370 BCE) wondered what would happen to a piece ‘gold if ic is cut indefinitely. The two philosophers concluded that there must be a smallest unit of ‘old that cannot be further broken down without ic ceasing to be gold. They called this unit atomos, aning “uncuttable.” The five main principles of Leucippus and Democritus’ theory include the ollowing: ‘All matter is made up of atoms that are too tiny co be seen by the naked eyes. They cannot be broken down further into smaller portions. All forms of matter result from the coming together or breaking apart of atoms. ‘Acoms are in constant motion around an empty space called void. ‘Atoms are completely solid. ‘Atoms are uniform, with no internal structure. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes. Chapter 1 Here’s the Matter 5Epirucus of Samos (341-270 BCE) popularized afomism, the philosophy that matter is made yp of atoms. He further enhanced the theory by proposing that differene types of atoms have differen ‘weights, and that all acoms have the same speed regardless of size. Unforeunately for the atomiat (chose who adhere to atomism), their philosophy was highly opposed by the more historically famous philosophers including Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle agreed with Empedocles that all matter was made up of che four fundamental elements in varying proportions. He further suggested chat one elemene could be transformed to another—a pioneering idea co the field of alchemy. Aristotle also added « fh fandamencal element aether, which supposedly made up matter found outside of Earth and the moon, Aristotle's theory was recognized as a continuous theory, which asserted chat matter can be divided ‘indefinitely without changing the fundamental characteristics of the material—a direct contrast to the discrete theory of the atomists. “The issue about the early theories of matter was that they were based on logic. Early philosophers did not have the methods or the instruments to prove or disprove their claims. As new experimental methods were developed and the scientific method flourished, the theory of the atom, despice having much initial opposition, came to be correct. Scientists have now come to agree, based on much experimental evidence, that all matter is indeed composed of atoms. But by the later part of the nineteenth century, the atomists’ belief that atoms were indivisible was disproved when scientists discovered the existence of subatomic particles. In a span of 40 years, scientists were able to characteriat these subatomic particles, and this new knowledge stimulated the growth of new fields of science and technology that continue to progress up to the present. States of Matter Ic is a fndamental knowledge in chemistry that matter is anything that has mass and volume, Muss is the amoune of matter, while volume is the space it occupies. All things, living or nonliving, at made up of matter, which can be characterized using the different senses. What are the characteristics or properties that make matter what it is? Matter can be described based on its state or phase, of which there are three main types—stlid, liquid, and gas, Several new studies, however, have revealed the existence of the fourth and fifth state referred to as plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate, tespectively. Substances can change from one phase another when the physical forces beeween the particles composing them are changed. One factor that can induce phase changes in mateer is temperature. As temperature rises, matter can transform 00 more active state without changing its chemical composition. Solids, Liquids, and Gases Solids have definite shape and volume. The particles in a solid are tightly packed together; th¥S: solids are almost incompressible. The particles vibrate in a fixed position; they cannot move % slide past each other. Solids have high densities and can expand only slightly when heated. 6 Exploring life Through Science—General Chemistry 1+ The three physical states of water showing the arrangement of their particles A liquid has no definite shape but has definite volume. The particles in a liquid are close with one another, but not as close as those ina solid. The particles are not arranged in a rigid or orderly manner; they can slide past each other, allowing the liquid to flow freely and take the shape of the container in Which itis placed. Liquids are almost incompressible, but they tend to expand slightly when heated. They generally have medium densities. Like liquids, gases cake the shape of their concainer. However, they have no definite volume. A gas can expand to fill any volume; thus, it takes both the shape and volume of its container. The particles jn a gas are usually much farther apart than those in a liquid. Because of the large space between the Particles, gases are easily compressed into a smaller volume when pressure is increased, bue they greatly expand when heated. Gases also have low densities. CF Represent and describe the arrangement and behavior of particles ofthe following substances—cir, alcohol, bottle. My Future in Science ricultural and food chemists help produce adequate nutritious food to sustain the population’s needs shi serving as oes rey ‘and reccaiysemn They research con the physical and chemical properties of proteins, fats, and car rates. also examine the microcomponents of some consumer products, such as additives and flavorings, to determine their mode of action in the food system. either innovate ways of using existing ingredients or develop novel ingredients altogether suck os fey ps Fi replacements They also help develop new chemicals to increase crop yield without introducing pollutants fo the environment. Agricultural chemists can work inthe laboratory or in the Reld, while mee food chemists are employed in food industries. They investigate a variety of samples, ranging from solid soil or plant samples, liquid fertilizers or food products, and even gaseous environmental samples, Chapler 1 Here’s the Matter 7”Phase changes are brought about by absorbing or releasing an amount of energy (heat) into or out of matter, The changes between the three main phases of matter are represented in figure 1-2 “The different phase changes can be best explained using water as the substance. Ice is the solid state of water, By adding heat, ice curns to liquid water through the process of melting. Further addition of heat changes liquid water into water vapor, a gas, through taporizatin. Water vapor may be transformed back to ice in a series of processes, which involve the removal hear Condensation curns che water vapor into liquid Fig, 8-2, Pose chanae of @ubtonc wth he tin water, and freezing further changes the liquid into ice. or removal of heat sOUD ou Notall substances, however, follow the same two-step process in changing states from solid to gas, Some substances like naphthalene can directly change from solid co gas in a Process called sublimation, “which also requires che addition of heat. Deposition, the reverse process of sublimation, transforms a gas directly into a solid without going chrough the liquid state, Plasma and Bose-Einstein Condensate Plasma is the fourth state of matter. Formed by heating and ionizing a gas, plasmas are made up of groups of negatively and positively charged particles. Plasmas are not the same as gases; they have neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. They are often observed in ionized gases, aurora borealis, lightning, and comet tails. ‘The fifth state of matter is the Bose-Einstein condensate produced when a cloud of bosons (a type of an elementary particle of matter) is cooled co temperatures very close to absolute zero (T =0 K) such that a large fraction of the bosons condense. Bose- Einstein condensates include superfluids like cold liquid helium, and superconductors like the nucleons inside a neutron star. Fig. 1-3. Lightning is streak of plasms: igi made cause _ Sir William Crookes iso British chemist and physicist who d ‘mn jin 1861. He was one of the scientists Ne icon theta, aga ident ics he fourth state of moter. Crookes als developed the Crookes tube and inthariscope, the si nara 2 eenunest used fo study cathode rays (streams of electrons) and 8 Exploring Life Through Science—General Chemistry 1