10/11/23, 7:36 PM Science Coverage
Science Coverage
Circulatory System
BLOOD FLOW
Superior/Inferior Vena Cava → Right atrium → Tricuspid valve → Right ventricle → Pulmonary
valve → Pulmonary artery → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Bicuspid valve → Left
ventricle → Aortic valve → Aorta → Body
Heart
The heart is composed of strong cardiac muscle tissues that continuously contract and
relax to pump blood throughout the body.
Right Atrium: It accepts blood from the body.
Left Atrium: It accepts blood from the lungs.
Right Ventricle: It pumps blood towards the lungs.
Left Ventricle: It pumps blood towards the body.
Tricuspid valve: Found between the right atrium and right ventricle.
Bicuspid valve: Found between the left atrium and left ventricle.
Pulmonary valve: Found at the base of the pulmonary artery.
Aortic valve: Located at the base of the aorta.
Respiratory System
Nose
The entrance of oxygen into our body.
Nasal Cavity or Nasal Passageways
Pharynx
Also known as the throat.
Contains the epiglottis, which closes off the opening of the trachea when you swallow.
Larynx
Also known as the voice box.
Involved in sound production.
Trachea
Known as the windpipe.
Lined with mucus-secreting cells and cilia to trap foreign materials.
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Bronchioles
Hairlike tubes that connect to the alveoli.
Lungs
The main organ in the respiratory system.
Bronchi
Air moves towards the bronchi (bronchus for singular), which serve as the extension of
the trachea that divides into the left and right lungs.
Breathing Process
When we breathe in:
1. Oxygen enters our body.
2. Ribs move out, and chest space increases.
3. The diaphragm muscle contracts.
When we breathe out:
1. Carbon Dioxide exits our body.
2. Ribs move in, and chest space decreases.
3. The diaphragm muscle relaxes.
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
A process by which genetic information is passed on from parents to a child.
Gene: A unit of heredity; a section of DNA that codes for a specific trait.
Inheritance: A physical feature or a trait of an organism.
Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an organism.
Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism.
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles of a particular gene.
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles of a particular gene.
Incomplete Dominance:
A mixture or blend of alleles in the genotypes is seen in the phenotype. Neither allele is
dominant over the other, resulting in a new phenotype.
Punnett Square for Roan Cross
When a brown horse (BB) is crossed with a white horse (WW), the heterozygous offspring (BW)
are neither brown nor white but roan (having intermingled red and white hairs).
a. A roan bull is crossed with a brown horse (BB):
Phenotype: Offspring will be roan (BR).
Genotype: Offspring will be heterozygous for brown and white (BR).
Codominance:
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Both alleles in the genotype are seen in the phenotype.
One allele is not dominant over the other.
/Punnett Square for Gumamela Cross
If Doraemon (BB) crossed with a violet Gumamela (BR) which is a mixture of blue and red (RR):
Phenotype: Some flowers will be blue (BB), some will be violet (BR).
Genotype: Some offspring will be homozygous for blue (BB), some will be heterozygous
for blue and red (BR).
Multiple Alleles
Ex: Human Blood Type
More than two phenotypes are exhibited or expressed in the resulting offspring.
There are more than two alleles controlling a gene pair.
Blood Type Example
If Brad Pitt has blood type B (IBi) and Gal Gadot has blood type AB (IAIB), their baby can have
blood types A, B, or AB.
Sex-Linked Inheritance
Involves the sex chromosomes (XX for female and XY for male).
Some common sex-linked traits are colorblindness and hemophilia.
Colorblindness Example
If a man without any colorblind condition (XCY) marries a woman who is a carrier of the
condition (XCXc), the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring can be determined
using the Punnett square.
Hemophilia Example
If a man with hemophilia condition (XhY) marries a woman who is a carrier of the condition
(XHXh), the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring can be determined using the
Punnett square.
Biodiversity
Refers to the variety of species found in a place on Earth and plays an important role in
the ecosystem.
Adaptation: The process by which organisms develop traits that make them better
suited to their environment.
Tolerance: The ability of organisms to withstand a variety of environmental conditions.
Factors Affecting Species Extinction
1. Climate Change: Long-term changes in temperature, rainfall, and weather patterns.
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2. Habitat Loss: Destruction of the natural habitat of organisms through overharvesting of
natural resources, urbanization, mining, and trawling.
3. Pollution: Presence of harmful or poisonous substances in the environment, including
air, noise, and water pollution.
4. Topography Changes: Alterations in the Earth's physical features due to erosion,
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and floods.
5. Species Introduction: Introduction of new species to an area, which can lead to the
extinction of native species.
Photosynthesis
Definition of Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants,
algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of
glucose and other organic molecules, using carbon dioxide and water.
Light Dependent Reactions: These reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts and require light. They capture and convert light energy into chemical
energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate).
Light Independent Reactions: Also known as the Calvin Cycle, these reactions take
place in the stroma of chloroplasts and do not directly require light. They use ATP and
NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into
glucose and other organic compounds.
Cellular Respiration
Stages of Cellular Respiration: Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break
down glucose and other organic molecules to produce ATP, the cell's energy currency. It
occurs in three main stages:
1. Glycolysis: This takes place in the cytoplasm and breaks down one molecule of
glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.
2. Pyruvate Oxidation (End Products): Pyruvate is transported into the
mitochondria and is further oxidized into Acetyl-CoA. The end products are
Acetyl-CoA and NADH.
3. Citric Acid Cycle (End Products): This cycle occurs in the mitochondria and
completes the oxidation of glucose. It produces ATP, NADH, FADH2, and carbon
dioxide. The end products are ATP, NADH, FADH2, and carbon dioxide.
4. Electron Transport Chain (End Products): This takes place in the inner
mitochondrial membrane and uses NADH and FADH2 to generate a proton
gradient. The end products are ATP and water.
Difference between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration:
Aspect Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration
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Location Chloroplasts (in plants) Cytoplasm (Glycolysis) and
and some bacteria. mitochondria (later stages).
Purpose Convert light energy into Break down glucose to
chemical energy (glucose). produce ATP (energy).
Reactants Carbon dioxide and water. Glucose and oxygen.
Products Glucose and oxygen. Carbon dioxide, water, and
ATP.
Energy Input Requires light (light- Energy released from the
dependent reactions). breakdown of glucose.
Energy Output Glucose and other organic ATP (ener
compounds.
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