SCIENCE REVIEWER
• RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - is made up of the organs in the body that help us to breathe.
• The word respiration is linked to "BREATHING".
• HOMEOSTASIS - is the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states. Refers to an
organism's ability to regulate various physiological processes to keep internal states steady and
balanced.
• NOSE - is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system. Air enters the body through
the openings of the nose called "NOSTRILS".
• NASAL CAVITIES/ NASAL PASSAGES - serve as the channel for airflow through the nose.
The nasal cavities are lined with "CILIA" and "MUCUS".
• PHARYNX (THROAT) - is the common passageway of food and air.
• TONSILS - are clusters of tissues found in the pharynx which trap and remove any bacteria
entering the throat.
• TONSILLITIS - is a condition wherein tonsils are swollen because they are congested with
bacteria.
• LARYNX (VOICE BOX) - is coveryby a flap of elastic tissue called "epiglottis" to ensure that
food and air enter through different pathways.
• TRACHEA (WINDPIPE) - is the main and largest passageway of air into the lungs.
• BRONCHI (BRONCHIAL TUBES) - are the two branches of trachea that lead the air to flow
into the lungs.
• BRONCHIOLES - are finer subdivisions or branches of the bronchi.
• ALVEOLI (AIR SACS) - allow the gas exchange in the lungs. Their walls are thin and moist
which is why gases can easily diffuse across the membrane of the alveoli.
• INHALING:
- air moves out of the lungs
- ribs move out
- chest space becomes larger
- diaphragm moves down
• EXHALING
- air moves into the lungs
- ribs move in
- chest space becomes smaller
- diaphragm moves up
• • CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - is responsible for disturbing materials throughout the body.
• Circulation means "transportation or movement in circles".
• is the life support structure that nourishes your cells with nutrients from the food you eat and
oxygen from the air you breathe.
• Parts of Circulatory system
1. HEART - pumps the blood throughout the body.
2. BLOOD VESSELS - carries the blood throughout the body
• Arteries - carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues and organs of the
body.
• Veins - carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.
• Capillaries - the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the smallest arteries to the
smallest veins and is the actual site where gases and nutrients are exchanged.
3. BLOOD - carries the material throughout the body.
• The atria receiving chambers of the heart;
- Right Atrium - accepting blood from the body.
- Left Atrium - from the lungs
• The ventricles are the pumping chambers;
- Right Ventricle - moving blood to the lungs.
- Left Ventricle - into the body.
• SYSTOLE - heart is contracting.
• DIASTOLE - heart is relaxing.
• BLOOD PRESSURE - is a measure of the force of the blood on the relaxing (during diastole).
• SPHYGMOMANOMETER - also known as a blood pressure monitor, is an instrument used to
measure blood pressure.
• BLOOD CIRCULATION - begins when the heart relaxes between heart beats.
• Types of Blood Circulation;
1. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION - in systemic circulation the left ventricle which is the largest and
most muscular chamber pumps blood containing oxygen in the aorta ( the largest artery in the
body).
2. PULMONARY CIRCULATION - the right ventricle which contains little oxygen and rich in
carbon dioxide pumps blood into the pulmonary artery which branches into little capillaries
which surround tiny vesicles called "air sacs".
3. CORONARY CIRCULATION - is the movement of blood throughout the vessels that supply
the "myocardium" also known as the heart muscle. The coronary circulation consists of the
blood vessels that supply blood to, and remove blood from, the heart.
1. Genes
Units of heredity that carry instructions for traits, passed from parents to offspring.
2. Alleles
Variations of a gene; organisms inherit two alleles for each trait, one from each parent.
3. Dominant and Recessive Traits
- Dominant traits mask recessive ones. A recessive trait shows only when two recessive alleles
are inherited.
4. DNA
The molecule that holds genetic information in genes.
5. Chromosomes
Structures in cells containing DNA; humans have 23 pairs.
6. Mendelian Inheritance
- Basic inheritance pattern of dominant and recessive traits discovered by Gregor Mendel.
7. Phenotype
The observable traits or characteristics.
8. Genotype
The genetic makeup responsible for a trait.
9. Punnett Square
- A tool used to predict the inheritance of traits.
10. Mutation
Changes in DNA that can affect heredity, sometimes leading to genetic disorders.
11. Polygenic Inheritance
Traits controlled by multiple genes (e.g., height, skin color).
12. Epigenetics
The study of how environment and behavior can affect gene expression without changing DNA.
13. Genetic Disorders
Conditions caused by mutations or defective genes, like cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia.
14.HOMOZYGOUS
This means having two identical alleles of a particular gene.
15.HETEROZYGOUS
This means having two different alleles of a particular gene.
16.Variation
Any difference between cells, individual organisms or groups of organism of any species.
Evolution:
Definition:
Describes the gradual change in organisms over time, adapting to environments to survive.
Geologic Timescale:
A timetable of Earth's history divided into eras:
Paleozoic Era (prehistoric life)
: Development of marine life and invertebrates.
Mesozoic Era (middle life)
: Existence of the largest creatures (dinosaurs).
Cenozoic Era (recent life)
: Rise of warm-blooded animals and humans.
Impact of Environmental Factors:
Environmental changes can affect the ecological balance locally and globally.
Evolution occurs as organisms adapt to changing conditions, leading to new species over time.
Extinct
means that a species no longer exists anywhere on Earth. All members of the species have
died out, like the dinosaurs.
Endangered
refers to a species that is at serious risk of becoming extinct because its population is very low
and continues to decrease, such as the Philippine eagle.
Threatened
means a species is likely to become endangered in the near future if no action is taken to
protect it, like some species of sea turtles.
Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance
1. Incomplete Dominance:
Both alleles result in an intermediate phenotype. Example: Snapdragon flowers - crossing red
(FRFR) and white (FWFW) results in pink (FRFW) flowers.
2. Codominance:
Both alleles are fully expressed. Example: Speckled chickens with black and white feathers. In
humans, blood types A and B show codominance, leading to AB blood type.
3. Multiple Alleles:
A gene with more than two alleles. Example: ABO blood types, where A and B are dominant,
and O is recessive.
4. Sex Chromosomes & Determination:
In each cell, humans have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs of chromosomes for both males and
females. Twenty-two (22) pairs are somatic chromosomes (any chromosomes that is not a sex
chromosome). The 23rd pair consists of sex chromosomes.
Males have XY chromosomes and females XX. The sperm determines the offspring's sex, with
a 50% chance of male or female offspring.
5. Sex-Linked Traits:
Traits found on X or Y chromosomes. Examples:
Hemophilia and color-blindness are X-linked, more commonly expressed in males.
Hypertrichosis pinnae auris is a Y-linked trait causing hairy ears in males.
6. Sex-Limited Traits:
Traits expressed in only one sex. Example: Lactation, found only in females.
Three law of heredity
Here are the main laws of heredity, established by Gregor Mendel:
1. Law of Dominance
- In a pair of alleles, one is dominant and masks the effect of the recessive allele.
2. Law of Segregation
During the formation of gametes (egg or sperm), the two alleles for a trait separate, so each
gamete carries only one allele for each trait. Offspring get one allele from each parent.
3. Law of Independent Assortment
- Genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other, meaning the inheritance of
one trait does not affect the inheritance of another (this applies to genes located on different
chromosomes).
Biodiversity Index:
A tool to estimate the complexity and stability of ecosystems. Calculated as
Limiting Factors:
Factors like food, water, space, predation, disease, light, temperature, and soil nutrients can
limit population growth.
These define the carrying capacity, or the maximum population an environment can support.
Endangered Species in the Philippines:
Examples: Tarsier, Philippine eagle, freshwater crocodile, tamaraw, and the naked-backed fruit
bat.
Species become endangered when their populations decrease drastically, risking extinction.
Evolution:
Definition:
Describes the gradual change in organisms over time, adapting to environments to survive.
Geologic Timescale:
A timetable of Earth's history divided into eras:
Paleozoic Era (prehistoric life)
: Development of marine life and invertebrates.
Biodiversity
> is the variety of life on Earth, in all its forms, from genes and bacteria to entire ecosystems
such as forests or coral reefs. (4.5 billion years)
Population
•Pertains to the number of organisms of the same species living in a certain place
Community
• is an expanding and rich subfield of ecology
Ecosystem
•An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in a particular
area.
Ecological balance
- is a biological term used to describe an ecosystem
Environmental sustainability
•is the responsibility to conserve natural resources and protect global ecosystems
Photosynthesis.
* Process of making food of plants and other autotropic organisms.
* Occurs in chlorophyll found in the leaves oif plants
• Two stages
1. Light-dependent Reaction
2. Calvin Cycle (dark reaction).
Light-dependent Reaction - occurs in the thylakoid membrane in the presence of light converts
light energy to chemical energy.
Calvin Cycle - dark reaction, is a light-independent phase that takes place in the stromata and
converts carbon dioxide into sugar.
* Chemical reaction / chemical formula of photosynthesis is :
* 6C02 + 6H20 → С6Н1206 + 602 -
Cellular Respiration
* Occurs in the mitochondria of cell
* Organisms releases stored energy in food through the process of respiration.
Chemical reaction / chemical formula of cellular respiration is :
* C6H1206 + 602 → 6C02 + 6H20 + Chemical Energy (in ATP)
* The breakdown of glucose involves three major steps: glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron
transport chain
