EC2601:SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

CHAPTER-1 : SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS-Part 1

By
AJIT KUMAR SAHOO
Asst.Prof (ECE)
NIT,Rourkela

1
 TEXT BOOK:
SIGNALS & SYSTEMS
By
ALAN V.OPPENHEIM
ALAN S.WILLSKY
WITH S. HAMID NAWAB

2
 CHAPTER-1 : SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
This chapter involves the development of the analytical framework for signals and systems
by introducing their mathematical description and representations.
Information in a signal is contained in a pattern of variations of some form.
Signals are represented mathematically as function of one or more independent variables.
Examples
• A speech signal can be represented mathematically by acoustic pressure as a function
of time.
• A picture can be represented by brightness as a function of two spatial variable.
f is a function of n independent variables i.e., 𝑓(𝑡1 , 𝑡2 … , 𝑡𝑛 ) then each{ 𝑡𝑘 } is
called independent variable.
The function f is referred as dependent variable.
In this course we will focus on signals involving a single independent variable (i.e., time).
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 Types of Signals
Two basic types of signals
(1)Continuous-time Signals: The independent variable is continuous. These signals are
defined for continuum of values of the independent variable.
• E.g: Speech Signal as a function of time
(2)Discrete-time Signals: The independent variable takes only discrete set of values.
These signals are defined only at discrete times.
• E.g: Stock market index
Notations
Continuous-time Signals: Symbol 't' is for independent variable and parenthesis (.) will be
used to enclose it.
Discrete-time Signals: Symbol 'n' is for independent variable and bracket [.] will be used to
enclose it.
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 Graphical Representation

Continuous-time Signals

A continuous-time signal is called a function

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 Graphical Representation
Discrete-time Signals
Discrete-time Signal 𝑥[𝑛] is defined only for integer values of independent
variable. For the non-integer values the signal is undefined.

A discrete-time signal is called a sequence 6

 Graphical Representation

x[n] 4 𝑥1 [n] 4
3 3

1 1
0 1 2 3 n -1 0 1 2 n
-2 -2
𝑥[0] = 1 𝑥1 [−1] = 1
x[n]=[1 -2 3 4 ] 𝑥 1 = −2 𝑥1 0 = −2
𝑥1 [n] =[1 -2 3 4 ]
𝑥[2] = 3 𝑥1 [1] = 3
𝑥[3] = 4 𝑥1 [2] = 4
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 Graphical Representation

𝑥[𝑛] = [… − 1 − 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 0 0 … ]

𝑥[0] = 1
𝑥[−1] = 1
𝑥[1] = 1
𝑥[−2] = 0.5
𝑥[2] = 1
𝑥[−3] = −0.5
𝑥[3] = 0.5
𝑥[−4] = −1
𝑥[4] = 0

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 Signal Energy and Power
Let 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) are instantaneous voltage and current across a resistor 'R'.
Instantaneous Power
1 2
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 . 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡)
𝑅
Total energy expended over the time interval 𝑡1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2 is
𝑡2 𝑡2
𝑣 2 (𝑡)
න 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑡
𝑅
𝑡1 𝑡1

Average power over this time interval is

𝑡2
𝑡2
1 1 1 2
න 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑣 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑅
𝑡1

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 Signal Energy and Power
With the motivation from the above example, it is a common and worthwhile

convention to use similar terminology for power and energy for any continuous-time

signal 𝑥(𝑡) or any discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛]

Total energy over the time interval 𝑡1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2 in a continuous-time signal 𝑥(𝑡) is

defined as
𝑡2
‫|)𝑡(𝑥| 𝑡׬‬2 𝑑𝑡 [𝑥(𝑡) can be a complex]
1

Time-averaged power is
𝑡2
1
න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1

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 Signal Energy and Power

Total energy in a discrete time signal 𝑥[𝑛] over the time interval 𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2 is
defined as
𝑛2

෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑛=𝑛1

Average-power is defined as
1
σ𝑛𝑛=𝑛
2
1
|𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑛2 −𝑛1 +1

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 x[n] 4
3

1
0 1 2 3 n

-2

x[n]=[1 -2 3 4 ]

Energy of the signal is 12 + −22 + 32 +42 = 30

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Power and Energy in a signal over an infinite interval
Energy
• Continuous-time signal
𝑇 2 𝑑𝑡 ∞
𝐸∞ ≜ lim ‫׬‬−𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞
• Discrete-time Signal
𝑁 ∞

𝐸∞ ≜ lim ෍ |𝑥 𝑛 |2 = ෍ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑁→∞
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−∞
• For some signals the integral (continuous-time) or summation (discrete-time) might not
converge.
• Such signals have infinite energy. E.g. 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛] equals a non-zero constant value
for all times.
• The signal with 𝐸∞ < ∞ have finite energy.
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Power and Energy in a signal over an infinite interval
Power
• Time-averaged power over an infinite interval is defined as
1 𝑇 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑃∞ ≜ lim ‫׬‬−𝑇
|𝑥(𝑡)| [Continuous-time]
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
1
and 𝑃∞ ≜ lim σ𝑁𝑛=−𝑁 |𝑥[𝑛]|2 [Discrete-time]
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁+1

• With these definitions, we can identify three important classes of signals

(1)Signals with finite total energy i.e., 𝐸∞ < ∞
• Such a signal must have zero average power [Energy Signal]

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• E.g.
∞ 1
𝐸∞ =‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 1𝑑𝑡 = 1
𝑃∞ =0

(2)Signals with finite average power 𝑃∞

𝑃∞ > 0 and 𝐸∞ = ∞ [Power Signal] x[n]

Eg: 𝑥[𝑛]=4 has infinite energy but average power=16 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

……… ……..

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 n
(3)Signals for which neither 𝑃∞ nor 𝐸∞ are
finite. [Neither Power Signal nor Energy Signal]
Eg: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 [Ramp Signal]
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 Transformations of Independent variables

(1)Time Shift [Translation]

Continuous-time Signal
• Time-shifting maps the input signal 𝑥(𝑡) to the output signal 𝑦(𝑡) as 𝑦(𝑡) =
𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) where 𝑡0 is a real number
• Such a transformation shifts the signal along the time axis (to the left or right)
• If 𝑡0 > 0 (Positive), 𝑦(𝑡) is shifted to the right by 𝑡0 relative to 𝑥(𝑡) (i.e., delayed
in time)
• If 𝑡0 < 0 (Negative), 𝑦(𝑡) is shifted to the left by 𝑡0 relative to 𝑥(𝑡) (i.e., advanced
in time)

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 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 1)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
𝑦 0 =𝑥 1
𝑦 0 = 𝑥 −1
𝑦(1) = 𝑥(2)
𝑦(1) = 𝑥(0)
𝑦(−1) = 𝑥(0)
𝑦(0.5) = 𝑥(−0.5)

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18
 Transformations of Independent variables
Discrete-time Signal
•Time-shifting maps the input signal 𝑥[𝑛] to the output signal 𝑦[𝑛] as 𝑦[𝑛] =
𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] where 𝑛0 is an integer.

•Such a transformation shifts the signal along the time axis (to the left or right)

•If 𝑛0 > 0 (Positive),𝑦[𝑛]is shifted to the right by 𝑛0 relative to 𝑥[𝑛] (i.e.,

delayed in time)

•If 𝑛0 < 0 (Negative),𝑦[𝑛] is shifted to the left by 𝑛0 relative to 𝑥[𝑛] (i.e.,

advanced in time)

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 Transformations of Independent variables

n n n

𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 1] 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]

𝑦[0] = 𝑥[1] 𝑦[0] = 𝑥[−1]
𝑦[1] = 𝑥[2] 𝑦[1] = 𝑥[0]
𝑦[−1] = 𝑥[0] 𝑦[−1] = 𝑥[−2]

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 Transformations of Independent variables

x[n] 4 𝑥1 [n] 4
3 3

1 1
0 1 2 3 n -1 0 1 2 n
-2 -2

x[n]=[1 -2 3 4 ] 𝑥1 [n] =[1 -2 3 4 ]

𝑥1 𝑛 = 𝑥[𝑛 + 1]
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 Transformations of Independent variables
(2)Time Reversal [Reflection]
Continuous-time Signal
•Time-reversal signal of 𝑥(𝑡) is denoted by 𝑥 −𝑡 is obtained by a reflection
about 𝑡 = 0
•If 𝑥(𝑡) represents an audio tape recording then 𝑥(−𝑡) is same tape
recording played backward

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 Transformations of Independent variables

Discrete-time Signal
• Time-reversal signal of 𝑥[𝑛], is denoted by 𝑥 −𝑛 , is obtained by a
reflection about 𝑛 = 0

𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 −𝑛
𝑦 0 =𝑥 0

𝑦 1 = 𝑥 −1

𝑦 2 = 𝑥 −2
𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 1

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 Transformations of Independent variables

(3)Time Scaling
Continuous-time Signal
• Time-scaling maps the input signal 𝑥(𝑡) to the output signal y(t) as 𝑦(𝑡) =
𝑥(𝑎𝑡) where a is a strictly positive real number
• If 𝑎 > 1, 𝑦(𝑡) is compressed signal along the horizontal axis by a factor of
a relative to 𝑥(𝑡)
• If 𝑎 < 1, 𝑦(𝑡) is expanded signal along the horizontal axis by a factor of
1/𝑎 relative to 𝑥 𝑡
If 𝑥(𝑡) is a tape recording, then 𝑥(2𝑡) is that recording played at twice the
speed and 𝑥(𝑡/2) is the recording played at half-speed.

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 Transformations of Independent variables

a=1 a=1/2
a=2 𝑥(𝑡/2)
t
-4
4

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡) , 𝑦 0.5 = 𝑥(1) , 𝑦 1 = 𝑥(2), 𝑦 −1 = 𝑥(−2)

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡/2) , 𝑦 1 = 𝑥(0.5),𝑦 2 = 𝑥(1),𝑦 4 = 𝑥(2),𝑦 −1 = 𝑥(−0.5)

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 Transformations of Independent variables

Discrete-time Signal
• Time-Scaling maps the input signal 𝑥[𝑛] to the output signal 𝑦[𝑛] as 𝑦[𝑛] =
𝑥[𝑎𝑛] where a is a strictly positive integer[Down-sampling].

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑥[2𝑛]
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 2𝑛
𝑦 0 =𝑥 0

𝑦 1 =𝑥 2

𝑦 2 =𝑥 4
𝑦 −1 = 𝑥 −2

𝑦 −2 = 𝑥 −4

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 Transformations of Independent variables

Given 𝑥(𝑡), obtain 𝑥(𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽)

(i)delay or advance 𝑥(𝑡) in accordance with the value of 𝛽,

(ii)and then perform time scaling and/or time reversal on the resulting signal in accordance
with the value of 𝛼

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 Example

3 2 5
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥( 𝑡 + 1) , 𝑦 = 𝑥(2) , 𝑦 1 = 𝑥( )
2 3 2

𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) is obtained by replacing 𝑡 with −𝑡 in 𝑥(𝑡 + 1). That is, 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) is the time
reversed version of 𝑥(𝑡 + 1). Thus, 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) may be obtained graphically by reflecting
𝑥(𝑡 + 1) about the 𝑡 axis 28
THANK YOU

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EC2601:SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
CHAPTER-1 : SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS-Part 2

By
Prof. AJIT KUMAR SAHOO
NIT,Rourkela

1
 Periodic Signals
Continuous-Time Signals
• A continuous time signal 𝑥(𝑡) is said to be periodic if, for positive value of 𝑇, the
following condition hold.
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) for all t.
• A periodic signal has the property that it is unchanged by a time shift of T
• If a signal is periodic with 𝑇, then 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑚𝑇) where m is an integer. So 𝑥(𝑡)
is also periodic with 2𝑇, 3𝑇. .
• The fundamental period 𝑇0 of 𝑥(𝑡) is the smallest positive value of 𝑇 for which
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) holds
• If 𝑥(𝑡) is constant, then fundamental period is undefined since 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic for
any choice of 𝑇 .
• A signal that is not periodic is called aperiodic signal.
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Continuous-time Periodic Signal

3
 Continuous-time Periodic Signal
𝑥(𝑡)

0
t

𝑥(𝑡) = 4

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) for all t

The fundamental period is undefined
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 Periodic Signals

Discrete-Time Signals

• A discrete-time signal (sequence) 𝑥[𝑛] is said to be periodic with period 𝑁, where

𝑁 is a positive integer, if the following condition hold .
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 𝑁] for all 𝑛

• 𝑥[𝑛] is also periodic with 2𝑁, 3𝑁. .

• The fundamental period 𝑁0 is the smallest positive value of 𝑁 for which 𝑥[𝑛] =
𝑥[𝑛 + 𝑁] holds

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 Periodic Signals

Fundamental period 𝑁0 = 3

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 Even and Odd Signals
A signal 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛] is refer to as even signal if it is identical to its time-reversed
counterpart, i.e.,
• 𝑥(−𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) [Continuous-time]
• 𝑥[−𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] [Discrete-time]
A signal is referred to as odd if
• 𝑥 −𝑡 = −𝑥(𝑡) [Continuous-time]
• 𝑥 −𝑛 = −𝑥[𝑛] [Discrete-time]
An odd signal must necessarily be 0 at 𝑡 = 0 or 𝑛 = 0
• 𝑥(0) = −𝑥(0) ⇒ 𝑥 0 = 0
• 𝑥[0] = −𝑥[0] ⇒ 𝑥[0] = 0

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 Even and Odd Signals

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑥[𝑛]

Even Odd 8
 Even and Odd Signals

• Every Signal can be broken into a sum of two signals one of which is even and the
other is odd.
1 1 1
𝑥(𝑡)= [𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(−𝑡)]= [𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(−𝑡)] + [𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(−𝑡)]
2 2 2

Even

Odd

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 Even and Odd Signals

• Continuous-Time
1
• Ev[𝑥(𝑡)]= [𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(−𝑡)] [Even Function]
2
1
• Od[𝑥(𝑡)]= [𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(−𝑡)] [Odd Function]
2
• Discrete-Time
1
• Ev[𝑥[𝑛]]= [𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑥[−𝑛]]
2
1
• Od[𝑥[𝑛]]= [𝑥[𝑛] − 𝑥[−𝑛]]
2

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 Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
Continuous-time Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal signals
• The continuous-time complex exponential signal is of the form 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡 where 𝐶
and 𝑎 are complex numbers
• The complex exponential can exhibit different characteristics depending upon its
parameter 𝐶 and 𝑎.
Real-Exponential signals
• A real exponential is a special case of complex exponential 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡 where 𝐶 and 𝑎
are restricted to be real numbers
a) If 𝑎 > 0, 𝑥(𝑡) increases exponentially as t increases (Growing exponential)
b) If 𝑎 < 0, 𝑥(𝑡) decreases exponentially as t increases (Decaying exponential)
c) If 𝑎 = 0, 𝑥(𝑡) is a constant.

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 Real Exponential signals
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡

Exponential Decreasing(𝑎 < 0)

Exponential Increasing(𝑎 > 0)
𝑥(𝑡)
C

0
t
Constant Signal (𝑎 = 0) (𝑐)
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 Periodic Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
Complex Exponentials
• a is purely imaginary
• A continuous-time complex exponential can be represented as 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
• If it is a periodic signal, then 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 (𝑡+𝑇) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑇 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑇 = 1
• If 𝜔0 =0 then 𝑥(𝑡) = 1(constant), which is periodic with any value of 𝑇
• If 𝜔0 ≠0 then the fundamental period 𝑇0 (Smallest value of 𝑇 for which 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑇 = 1) of
𝑥(𝑡) is
2𝜋
𝑇0 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝜔0

• The signals 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 and 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 have the same fundamental period.

13
 Periodic Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
 Sinusoidal Signals
• A sinusoidal signal can be represented as 𝑥(𝑡) = A cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑 )
t→seconds
𝜔0 →radians/second
𝜑 →radians
𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 where 𝑓0 is in cycles/second or Hz
• The sinusoidal signal is periodic
2𝜋
with fundamental period 𝑇0 =
𝜔0

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 Periodic Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
Euler’s relation establishes the fundamental relationship between the
trigonometric functions and the complex exponential functions.

• 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 =cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑗sin 𝜔0 𝑡

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
• 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑)= 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔0 𝑡+𝜑) + 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔0 𝑡+𝜑) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜑 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜑 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡
2 2 2 2

• A cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑)=A Re{ 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔0 𝑡+𝜑) }

• A sin(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑)=A Im{ 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔0 𝑡+𝜑) }

15
 Periodic Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals

From (1) it is clear that the fundamental period 𝑇0 of a continuous-time signal or a

periodic complex exponential is inversely proportional to 𝜔0 , which is named as
fundamental frequency
• If the magnitude of 𝜔0 decreases ( rate of oscillation decreases) then the
fundamental period increases and vice-versa.
• If 𝑥(𝑡) is a constant signal then it is periodic with any positive value of 𝑇. Thus
the fundamental period of a constant signal is undefined.
• The fundamental frequency of a constant signal to be zero i.e. a constant signal
has zero rate of oscillation

16
Periodic Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals

𝜔1 > 𝜔2 > 𝜔3
⇒ 𝑇1 < 𝑇2 < 𝑇3

17
 Periodic Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
• Total energy over one period
𝑇0 𝑗𝜔𝑡 2 𝑇0
𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =‫׬‬0 |𝑒 | 𝑑𝑡=‫׬‬0 1𝑑𝑡= 𝑇0
• Average Power over one period
1
𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 1
𝑇0
• Since there are infinite number of periods as 𝑡 ranges from −∞ to ∞ the total energy
integrated over all time is infinite. So 𝐸∞ = ∞
Since the average power of the signal equals 1 over each period, averaging over multiple
periods will always yields an average power of 1
Average Power
𝑇
1 𝑗𝜔𝑡 2
𝑃∞ ≜ lim න𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 1
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇 18
 Harmonically related complex exponentials
These are sets of periodic exponentials, all of which are periodic with a common period
𝑇0 . If 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 is periodic with 𝑇0 , then
𝑒 𝑗𝜔(𝑡+𝑇0 ) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
⇒ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑇0 = 1 ⇒ 𝜔𝑇0 = 2𝜋𝑘……..(2),
𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
2𝜋
Define 𝜔0 = ………………………...…(3)
𝑇0

From eq (2) and eq (3)

ω = 𝑘𝜔0
𝜔 must be an integer multiple of 𝜔0
19
 Harmonically related complex exponentials
A harmonically related set of complex exponentials is a set of periodic
exponentials with fundamental frequency that are all multiples of single positive
frequency 𝜔0 :
𝜑𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡 , 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
𝑘 = 0, 𝜑𝑘 (𝑡) is a constant
For any other value of 𝑘, 𝜑𝑘 (𝑡) is periodic with fundamental frequency 𝑘 𝜔0 and
2𝜋 𝑇
fundamental period is = 0
𝑘 𝜔0 𝑘

The 𝑘 𝑡ℎ harmonic 𝜑𝑘 (𝑡) is still periodic with period 𝑇0 as well, as it goes through
exactly 𝑘 number of its fundamental periods during any intervals of length 𝑇0

20
 Harmonically related complex exponentials

𝑇0 , 𝜔0

𝑇0 /2, 2𝜔0 Also periodic with 𝑇0

𝑇0 /3, 3𝜔0 Also periodic with 𝑇0

21
 General Complex Exponentials

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡 , 𝐶 and 𝑎 both are complex

• 𝐶 = |𝐶|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 [Polar form]
• 𝑎 = 𝑟 + 𝑗𝜔0 [Rectangular form]
𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡 = |𝐶|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 (𝑟+𝑗𝜔0 )𝑡 = |𝐶|𝑒 𝑟𝑡 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔0 𝑡+𝜃) ……...(4)
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑎𝑡 = |𝐶|𝑒 𝑟𝑡 cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃) + 𝑗 |𝐶|𝑒 𝑟𝑡 sin(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃)

𝑅𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 𝐼𝑚{𝑥(𝑡)}

22
𝑟 > 0, Re{𝑥 𝑡 } and Im{𝑥 𝑡 } are each the product of a sinusoid and a growing
exponential
𝑟 < 0, Re{𝑥 𝑡 } and Im{𝑥 𝑡 } are each the product of a sinusoid and a decaying
exponential
𝑟 = 0, Re{𝑥 𝑡 } and Im{𝑥 𝑡 } are sinusoids

Growing Sinusoidal Signal

Decaying Sinusoidal Signal
𝑅𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑟𝑡 cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃), 𝑟 > 0
𝑅𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑟𝑡 cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃), 𝑟23< 0
 𝑥 𝑡 }
|𝐶|

|𝐶|
𝑅𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑟𝑡 cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃), 𝑟 = 0

From eq (4), |𝐶| 𝑒 𝑟𝑡 is the magnitude of the complex exponential. So the dashed
curves act as an envelope for the oscillating curve.
24
THANK YOU

25
EC2601:SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
CHAPTER-1 : SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS-Part 3

By
Prof. AJIT KUMAR SAHOO
NIT,Rourkela

1
 Discrete-Time complex exponential and Sinusoidal
signals
A discrete-time complex exponential signal or sequence is of the form

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐶𝛼 𝑛 …………(5) where 𝐶 and 𝛼 are complex numbers

Alternatively, eq(5) can be expressed as 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝐶𝑒𝛽𝑛 …..(6), where 𝛼 = 𝑒 𝛽

The complex exponential can exhibit different characteristics depending upon its
parameters 𝐶 and 𝛼

2
 Real Exponential signal
A discrete-time real exponential is a special case of complex exponential
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐶𝛼 𝑛
where 𝐶 and 𝛼 are real numbers
• If 𝛼 > 1, the magnitude of the signal 𝑥[𝑛] grows exponentially with 𝑛 (Growing
Exponential)
• If 𝛼 < 1 , the magnitude of the signal 𝑥[𝑛] decreases exponentially with
𝑛 (Decaying Exponential)
• If 𝛼 = 1, then 𝑥[𝑛] is a constant
• If 𝛼 = −1 , 𝑥[𝑛] alternates between +𝐶 and − 𝐶

3
𝛼>1 0<𝛼<1

−1 < 𝛼 < 0 𝛼 < −1

4
 Sinusoid Signals
Using eq(6) and constraining 𝛽 as a purely imaginary number (i.e 𝛼 = 1 ) and
𝐶 = 1,we will get
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 …(7)
As in the continuous time case, the discrete-time sinusoid is represented as
𝑥 𝑛 = Acos(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜑)…….(8)
𝑛 →dimensionless 𝜔0 , 𝜑 → radians

5
The signals represented in eq(7) and eq(8) are examples of discrete-time signals with
infinite total energy but finite average power
𝑗𝜔 𝑛 2
Since 𝑒 0 = 1, every sample of the signal in eq(7) contribute 1 to the signal
energy. Thus the total energy for −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞ is infinite, while the average power
per time point is equal to 1.
According to Euler’s relation
𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 =cos 𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔0 𝑛 …..(9)
𝐴 𝑗∅ 𝑗𝜔 𝑛 𝐴 −𝑗∅ −𝑗𝜔 𝑛
A cos(𝜔0 𝑛 + ∅) = 𝑒 𝑒 0 + 𝑒 𝑒 0 ….(10)
2 2

6
 General Complex Exponential Signal

The general complex exponential signal can be represented as in terms of real

exponential and sinusoidal signals.
General exponential signal
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐶𝛼 𝑛
Let 𝐶 = |𝐶|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 and 𝛼 = |𝛼|𝑒 𝑗𝜔0

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐶𝛼 𝑛 = |𝐶| 𝛼 𝑛 cos(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜃) + 𝑗|𝐶||𝛼|𝑛 sin(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜃)

Re{𝑥[𝑛]} Im{𝑥[𝑛]}

7
If 𝛼 = 1, then real(Re{𝑥[𝑛]}) and imaginary (Im{𝑥[𝑛]}) parts of a complex
exponential sequence are sinusoidal.

𝑎 𝛼 =1

8
If 𝛼 > 1, corresponds to sinusoidal sequences multiplied by a growing exponential
If 𝛼 < 1, corresponds to sinusoidal sequences multiplied by a decaying exponential

(𝑐) 𝛼 < 1
(𝑏) 𝛼 > 1

9
 Periodic Properties of Discrete-time complex
exponentials
Continuous-time counter part: 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡

• The larger is the magnitude of 𝜔0 , the higher is the rate of oscillation in the
signal.

• 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 is periodic for any value of 𝜔0

• 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 are all distinct for distinct value of 𝜔0

10
Discrete-Time case
• 𝑒𝑗 𝜔0 +2𝜋 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛

• Discrete-time complex exponentials separated by 2𝜋 are same.

• The signal with frequency 𝜔0 is identical to the signals with frequencies
𝜔0 ± 2𝜋, 𝜔0 ± 4𝜋, and so on.
• In discrete-time complex exponentials only a frequency interval of length
2𝜋 is considered. E.g: −𝜋 ≤ 𝜔0 ≤ 𝜋 or 0 ≤ 𝜔0 ≤ 2𝜋.
• 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 doesn’t have a continually increasing rate of oscillation as 𝜔0 is
increased in magnitude.

11
• As 𝜔0 increases from ‘0’, the signal oscillates more and more rapidly until 𝜔0 = 𝜋. After this
the increase in 𝜔0 will decrease in the rate of oscillation until it is reached 𝜔0 =2𝜋, which
produces the same constant sequence as 𝜔0 =0
• So, low frequency (i.e. slowly varying) discrete-time exponentials have values of 𝜔0 near 0, 2𝜋
and any other even multiple of 𝜋, while high frequencies(rapid variations) are located near
𝜔0 = ±𝜋 and other odd multiple of 𝜋.
• In particular for 𝜔0 = 𝜋 or any odd multiple of 𝜋
𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑛 = (𝑒 𝑗𝜋 )𝑛 = (−1)𝑛
It indicates signal oscillates rapidly (changing sign at each point in time).

12
 Periodicity
𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 will be periodic with period 𝑁 > 0, if 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 (𝑛+𝑁) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛
⇒ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛
⇒ 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑁 = 1
𝜔0 𝑁 must be multiple of 2𝜋. There must be an integer 𝑚 such that 𝜔0 𝑁 = 2𝜋𝑚
𝜔0 𝑚
⇒ = Rational Number
2𝜋 𝑁
𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 𝜔0
The signal 𝑒 is periodic if is a rational number, and not periodic
2𝜋
otherwise. The same observation is applicable for discrete-time sinusoids
2𝜋 𝜔0
Fundamental frequency of a periodic signal 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 is = and fundamental
𝑁 m
2𝜋
period 𝑁 = 𝑚( ) [𝑁 and 𝑚 has no common factor]
𝜔0

13
 𝒋𝝎𝟎 𝒕 𝒋𝝎𝟎 𝒏
Comparison of signals 𝒆 and 𝒆
𝒆𝒋𝝎𝟎 𝒕 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝟎 𝒏
Distinct signals for distinct values of Identical signals for values of
𝜔0 𝜔0 separated by 2𝜋
Periodic for any choice of 𝜔0 2𝜋𝑚
Periodic only if 𝜔0 = for some
𝑁
Fundamental Frequency 𝜔0 integers 𝑁 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚
𝜔
Fundamental Period Fundamental frequency 0
𝑚
• 𝜔0 = 0, undefined (𝑚 and 𝑁 don’t have any factors in
2𝜋 common)
• 𝜔0 ≠ 0 ,
𝜔0
Fundamental period
• 𝜔0 = 0, undefined
2𝜋
• 𝜔0 ≠ 0, 𝑚( )
𝜔0
(𝑚 and 𝑁 do not have any common
factors) 14
Example-1:
Find the fundamental period if the signal is periodic.
2𝜋
• 𝑥(𝑡)=cos 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑇 = 12 Periodic
12
2𝜋
• 𝑥[𝑛]=cos 𝑛
12
2𝜋
𝜔0 𝑚 12 𝑚 𝑚 1
⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ =
2𝜋 𝑁 2𝜋 𝑁 𝑁 12

⇒ 𝑁 = 12
Periodic

15
 Example-2
 Find the fundamental period if the signal is periodic.
8𝜋
• 𝑥(𝑡)=cos 𝑡 Periodic
31
8𝜋
• 𝑥[𝑛]=cos 𝑛 Periodic
31
8𝜋
𝑥(𝑡)=cos 𝑡
31
2𝜋 31
𝑇0 = 8𝜋 =
4
31
8𝜋
𝑥[𝑛]=cos 𝑛
31
8𝜋
𝜔0 𝑚 31 𝑚 𝑚 4
⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ =
2𝜋 𝑁 2𝜋 𝑁 𝑁 31

⇒ 𝑁 = 31
The discrete time signals is defined only for integer values of independent variable.
16
Example-3
 Find the fundamental period if the signal is periodic.
𝑡
• 𝑥(𝑡)=cos
6
𝑛
• 𝑥[𝑛]=cos
6

𝑡
⇒ 𝑥(𝑡)=cos
6
𝑇0 = 12𝜋
𝑛
𝑥[𝑛]=cos Rational Number
6
𝜔0 1 1 𝑚
⇒ = = =
2𝜋 6 × 2𝜋 12𝜋 𝑁
Irrational Number

So it is not periodic. 17
 Example-4
2𝜋 3𝜋
𝑗 𝑛 𝑗 𝑛
 𝑥[𝑛]= 𝑒 3 + 𝑒 4 , find the fundamental period if the signal is periodic.

2𝜋
𝑗 𝑛
𝑒 3 is periodic with 3

3𝜋
𝑗 𝑛
𝑒 4 is periodic with 8

𝑥[𝑛] is periodic with 24

• For any two periodic sequences 𝑥1 𝑛 and 𝑥2 [𝑛] with fundamental period 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 ,
respectively, then 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑥2 [𝑛] is periodic with 𝐿𝐶𝑀(𝑁1 , 𝑁2 )
18
 Harmonically related periodic exponentials

A set of periodic complex exponentials is said to be harmonically related if all the

signals are periodic with a common period 𝑁
2𝜋
These are the signals of frequencies which are multiples of . That is
𝑁
2𝜋
𝑗𝑘( )𝑛
∅𝑘 [𝑛] = 𝑒 𝑁 , 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …
In continuous time case, all of the harmonically related complex exponentials
2𝜋
𝑗𝑘 𝑡
𝑒 𝑇 , 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … are distinct

19
In discrete time case
2𝜋
𝑗(𝑘+𝑁) 𝑁 𝑛
∅𝑘+𝑁 𝑛 = 𝑒
2𝜋
𝑗𝑘 𝑛
∅𝑘+𝑁 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑁 . 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛 = ∅𝑘 [𝑛] ……..(11)
This implies that there are only 𝑁 distinct periodic exponentials in eq (11)

2𝜋𝑛 4𝜋𝑛 2𝜋(𝑁−1)𝑛

E.g.:∅0 𝑛 = 1, ∅1 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑗 𝑁 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅2 [𝑛] = 𝑒𝑗 𝑁 ,…….∅𝑁−1 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗 𝑁 are
distinct.
Any other ∅𝑘 [𝑛] is identical to one of these
E.g.: ∅𝑁 [𝑛] = ∅0 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅−1 [𝑛] = ∅𝑁−1 [𝑛]

20
 Unit Impulse and Unit Step Functions

Discrete-time unit impulse and unit step sequences.

0, 𝑛 ≠ 0
The unit impulse or unit sample sequence is defined as 𝛿[𝑛]=ቊ
1, 𝑛 = 0

0, 𝑛 < 0
Discrete-time unit step signal 𝑢[𝑛] is defined as 𝑢[𝑛]=ቊ
1, 𝑛 ≥ 0

21
Discrete-time unit impulse is the first difference of the discrete-time step
𝛿[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛] − 𝑢[𝑛 − 1]

22
The discrete-time unit step is the running sum of the unit sample
𝑢[𝑛] = σ𝑛𝑚=−∞ 𝛿[𝑚]………(12)

𝑛<0 𝑛>0

23
Put 𝑘 = 𝑛 − 𝑚 in eq(12)
0

𝑢[𝑛] = ෍ 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘=∞

𝑢[𝑛] = σ∞
𝑘=0 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘] …….(13)

𝑛>0
𝑛<0

24
 Eq(13) can be interpreted as superposition of delayed impulses.

𝑢[𝑛] = σ∞
𝑘=0 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘])

25
The unit impulse sequence can be used to sample the value of a signal.

𝑥 𝑛 . 𝛿 𝑛 = 𝑥 0 . 𝛿[𝑛]

𝑥 𝑛 . 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 𝑥 𝑛0 . 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]

26
Continuous time unit-step and unit impulse function

The continuous time unit step function 𝑢(𝑡) is defined as

0, 𝑡 < 0
𝑢(𝑡)=ቊ
1, 𝑡 > 0

27
The continuous time unit impulse function 𝛿(𝑡) is related to the unit step function
as
𝑡

𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 … … … … … … … … (14)
−∞
𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
𝛿 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑢(𝑡) is discontinuous at 𝑡 = 0

𝑢(𝑡) = lim 𝑢∆ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑢∆ (𝑡)

∆→0 𝛿∆ 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡 28
𝛿∆ 𝑡 is a short pulse of duration ∆ and with unit area for any value of ∆
𝛿(𝑡) = lim 𝛿∆ (𝑡)
∆→0

Continuous Time Unit Impulse Scaled Impulse

The arrow at 𝑡 = 0 indicates the area of the pulse is concentrated at 𝑡 = 0 and the
height of the arrow and ‘1’ next to arrow are used to represent area of the impulse

29
Scaled impulse 𝑘𝛿 𝑡 will have an area 𝑘, so
𝑡

න 𝑘𝛿 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑘𝑢(𝑡)
−∞
𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
Put 𝜎 = 𝑡 − 𝜏
𝑡

⇒ 𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜎 (−𝑑𝜎)
−∞

⇒ 𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜎 (𝑑𝜎) … … … … … … … … … (15)
0

30
 𝑡 < 0 𝑡 < 0

𝑡 > 0 𝑡 > 0
𝑡 ∞

𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜎 (𝑑𝜎)
−∞ 0 31
 Properties of Impulse Function
Continuous-time Discrete-time

0, 𝑡≠0 Definition 0, 𝑛 ≠ 0 Definition

𝛿 𝑡 =൝ ∞  𝛿[𝑛]=ቊ
‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1 1, 𝑛 = 0
𝑥(𝑡). 𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑥(0). 𝛿(𝑡)  𝑥 𝑛 . 𝛿 𝑛 = 𝑥 0 . 𝛿[𝑛]
𝑥(𝑡). 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡0 ). 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )  𝑥 𝑛 . 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 𝑥 𝑛 0 . 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛0
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥(𝑡). 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡0 )  σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛 . 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛0 =𝑥 𝑛0
1  𝛿 𝑎𝑛 = 𝛿[𝑛]
𝛿 𝑎𝑡 = 𝛿(𝑡)
𝑎  𝛿 −𝑛 = 𝛿[𝑛]
𝛿 −𝑡 = 𝛿(𝑡)

32
THANK YOU

33
EC2601:SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
CHAPTER-1 : SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS-Part 4

By
Prof. AJIT KUMAR SAHOO
NIT, Rourkela

1
 Systems
 A system can be viewed as a process in which input signals are transformed
by the system or cause the system to respond in some way, resulting in other
signals as outputs.

 A system is an entity that process one or more input signals in order to

produce one or more output signals.

● E.g.: An image-enhancement system transforms an input image into an

output image that has some desired properties, such as improved contrast.
 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems
 A continuous-time system is a system in which continuous-time input signals are applied
and result in continuous-time output signals.

 A discrete-time system is a system that transforms discrete-time inputs into discrete-time

outputs.
 Interconnection of Systems
 Describing a system in terms of an interconnection of simpler subsystems, we may in fact
be able to define useful ways in which to synthesize complex systems out of simpler basic
building blocks.
• Series Interconnection (Cascade Interconnection):

• Parallel Interconnection:
• Series-Parallel Interconnection:

• Feedback Interconnection:
 Basic System Properties
(1)Systems with and without memory:
• A system is said to be memoryless if its output for each value of the independent
variable at a given time is dependent only on the input at that same time.

• Examples of memoryless (static) system:

 𝑦 𝑛 = (2𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥 2 [𝑛])2

 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑥(𝑡), [𝑅 : Resistance, 𝑥(𝑡) : Current, 𝑦(𝑡) : Voltage.]

 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡), [Identity System.]

 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 , [Identity System.]
• Examples of systems with memory (dynamic systems):

 𝑦 𝑛 = σ𝑛𝑘=−∞ 𝑥[𝑘], [Accumulator/Summer.]

 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥[𝑛 − 1], [Delay.]

 Output voltage across a capacitor:

1 𝑡
𝑦(𝑡) = ‫𝑥 ׬‬ 𝛾 𝑑𝛾, 𝐶 : Capacitance, 𝑥(𝑡) : Current through the capacitor,
𝐶 −∞

𝑦(𝑡) : Voltage.
(2)Invertibility and Inverse Systems:
• A system is said to be invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs.

• E.g.: An invertible continuous-time system is 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡),

1
The inverse system is 𝑤(𝑡) = 𝑦(𝑡).
2
• Accumulator:
𝑛 𝑛−1

𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑘] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 + 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑦 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑥[𝑛]
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞

The inverse system is 𝑤 𝑛 = 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑦[𝑛 − 1].

• Examples of Non-Invertible System:

 𝑦 𝑛 =0
 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
(3) Causality:

• A system is causal if the output at any time depends only on values of the input at
the present time and in the past.

• Such a system is often referred to as being nonanticipative, as the system output

does not anticipate future values of the input.

• Examples of Causal System:

 𝑦 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡−1
 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]
 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛
 𝑦 𝑛 = σ𝑛𝑘=−∞ 𝑥[𝑘]
• Examples of Non-Causal System:

 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑥[𝑛 + 1]

 𝑦 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡+1

 𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 𝑛2

 𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 2𝑛

 𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 −𝑛
1
 𝑦𝑛 = σ𝑀 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘], [Non-causal averaging system]
(2𝑀+1) 𝑘=−𝑀
● All memoryless systems are causal, since the output responds only to the current value of
the input.

● In real time signal processing applications we can not observe future values of the signal
and hence a non-causal system is not physically realizable (can not be implemented).

● Causality is not often an essential constraint in applications in which the independent

variable is not time.

● If the signal is recorded so that the processing is done offline (non-real time), it is
possible to implement a non-causal system, since all values of the signal are available at
the time of processing. This is often the case in processing of audio, image, video,
geographical and metrological signals.
● Examples:
 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥[−𝑛]
𝑦 2 = 𝑥[−2]
𝑦 −2 = 𝑥[2], hence non-causal.

 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) cos(𝑡 + 1)

 𝑦(𝑡) can be written as 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 , where 𝑔 𝑡 = cos(𝑡 + 1) is a time-

varying function.

 So, only the current value of the input 𝑥(𝑡) influences the current value of the
output 𝑦 𝑡 . Therefore the system is causal.
(4)Stability:
 A system is said to be bounded input-bounded output (BIBO) stable if every
bounded input produces a bounded output.

 Mathematically, if 𝑥[𝑛] ≤ 𝑀𝑥 ≤ ∞, then 𝑦[𝑛] ≤ 𝑀𝑦 ≤ ∞ for all 𝑛 where 𝑀𝑥

and 𝑀𝑦 are finite numbers.

 Examples:

i. 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑥 𝑡

Let 𝑥 𝑡 = 1, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡, which is unbounded. Hence it is unstable.

ii. 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑥 𝑡 <𝐵

As −𝐵 < 𝑥 𝑡 < 𝐵, 𝑒 −𝐵 < 𝑦 𝑡 < 𝑒 𝐵 . 𝑦 𝑡 is bounded, so the system is stable.

(5)Time Invariance:
 A system is time invariant if the behavior and characteristics of the system are fixed
over time.

 A system is time invariant if a time shift in the input signal results in an identical
time shift in the output signal.

 If 𝑦[𝑛] is the output of a discrete-time, time-invariant system when 𝑥[𝑛] is the input,
then 𝑦 [𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] is the output when 𝑥 [𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] is applied.
𝑥 𝑛 →𝑦 𝑛
𝑥 [𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] → 𝑦 [𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]

In continuous time,
𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) → 𝑦 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
 Examples: 𝑦 𝑡 = sin[𝑥(𝑡)]

 𝑦1 𝑡 = sin[𝑥1 (𝑡)], where 𝑥1 𝑡 is any arbitrary input to the system.

 𝑥2 𝑡 =𝑥1 𝑡 − 𝑡0

 The output corresponding to input 𝑥2 𝑡 is

𝑦2 𝑡 = sin 𝑥2 𝑡 = sin 𝑥1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 … (1)

 Time delayed version of 𝑦1 𝑡 is

𝑦1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = sin 𝑥1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 … (2)

 As (1) and (2) are same, therefore this system is time invariant.
 Examples: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡)

1, 𝑡 < 2
 Consider 𝑥1 𝑡 = ቊ
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

1, 𝑡 < 1
 𝑦1 𝑡 = ቊ
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

1, 0 < 𝑡 < 4
 Take 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 − 2 = ቊ
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

1,0 < 𝑡 < 2 1, 1 < 𝑡 < 3

 𝑦2 𝑡 = ቊ and 𝑦1 𝑡 − 2 = ቊ
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

 AS 𝑦1 𝑡 − 2 ≠ 𝑦2 𝑡 or Fig. (d) ≠ Fig. (e), the system is time variant.

 Procedure to determine time variance/invariance:

𝑥 𝑡 𝑦1 𝑡
System Delay

𝑥 𝑡 𝑦2 𝑡
Delay System

For time-invariance 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑦2 𝑡
  Example: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡)

𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 2𝑡 Delay 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 − 𝑘 = 𝑥(2𝑡 − 2𝑘)

System
𝑘

𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡−𝑘 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡 − 𝑘)
Delay System
𝑘

As 𝑦1 𝑡 ≠ 𝑦2 𝑡 , the system is time variant.

  Example: 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[−𝑛]

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑥[−𝑛] Delay 𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑥[−𝑛 + 𝑘]

System
𝑘

𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘] 𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥[−𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑥[𝑛] Delay System
𝑘

As 𝑦1 [𝑛] ≠ 𝑦2 [𝑛], the system is time variant.

 Examples of time-invariant system:

i. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛

ii. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 2 [𝑛]

iii. 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 1)

 Examples of time variant system:

i. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛

ii. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥[−𝑛]

iii. 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 [𝑛2 ]
(6)Linearity:
 A linear system, in continuous time or discrete time, is a system that possesses the
important property of superposition: If an input consists of the weighted sum of
several signals, then the output is the superposition-that is, the weighted sum-of the
responses of the system to each of those signals.

𝑥1 (𝑡) → 𝑦1 (𝑡), 𝑥2 (𝑡) → 𝑦2 (𝑡)

The system is linear if

i. The response to 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 (𝑡) is 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 (𝑡), i.e.

𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 (𝑡) → 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡 , [Additivity Property]

ii. The response to 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 is 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 , where a is any complex constant, i.e.

𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 → 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 , [Scaling/Homogeneity Property]

 The two properties defining a linear system can be combined into a single
statement:

i. continuous time: 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡) → 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑡),

ii. discrete time: 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 → 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑛 ,

where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are any complex constants.

 In general for linear system

if 𝑥 𝑛 = σ𝑘 𝑎𝑘 𝑥𝑘 [𝑛] = 𝑎1 𝑥1 [𝑛]+𝑎2 𝑥2 [𝑛]+⋯

then 𝑦 𝑛 = σ𝑘 𝑎𝑘 𝑦𝑘 [𝑛] = 𝑎1 𝑦1 [𝑛]+𝑎2 𝑦2 [𝑛]+⋯

 For a linear system: zero input yields zero output.

 Examples:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡)

• 𝑥1 𝑡 → 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥1 𝑡

• 𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥2 𝑡

• Let 𝑥3 𝑡 be a linear combination of 𝑥1 𝑡 and 𝑥2 𝑡 , i.e. 𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 +

𝑏𝑥2 𝑡

• If 𝑥3 𝑡 is input to system , then the corresponding output is

𝑦3 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡

• So the system is linear.

● Graphical representation of superposition principle. The system is linear if
and only if 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑦 ′ [𝑛].

𝑥1 [𝑛] 𝑎
𝑦[𝑛]
System
𝑥2 [𝑛]
𝑏
𝑎
𝑥1 [𝑛] System
𝑦 ′ [𝑛]

𝑥2 [𝑛]
System 𝑏
 Examples:
𝑦 𝑛 = 2𝑥 𝑛 + 3

• It is not a linear system.

• If 𝑥 𝑛 = 0,then 𝑦 𝑛 = 3.

• This type of system is called incrementally linear system.

𝑦0 (𝑡)

𝑥(𝑡) Linear
𝑦(𝑡)
System

• 𝑦0 (𝑡) is zero input response of the system.

 Summary
● A number of basic concepts related to continuous-time and discrete-time signals and
systems have been developed.
● Graphical and mathematical representations of signals are introduced and used these
representations in performing transformations of the independent variable.
● Several basic signals, both in continuous-time and discrete-time, are also defined and
examined. These included complex exponential signals, sinusoidal signals, and unit
impulse and step functions.
● The concept of periodicity for continuous-time and discrete-time signals have been
investigated.
● Some of the elementary ideas related to systems have been developed and block
diagrams are introduced to facilitate the discussions concerning the interconnection of
systems
● A number of important properties of systems are discussed including causality, stability,
time invariance, and linearity.
THANK YOU

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