DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS
Ingestion
Mastication
Propulsion
Mixing
Secretion
Digestion
Absorption
Elimination

HISTOLOGY OF DIGESTIVE TRACT

1) Mucosa - innermost tunic, consists of three layers.
a) Mucosa epithelium, stratified squamous epithelium
b) Lamina propria, loose connective tissue.
c) Muscularis mucosae, outer thin smooth muscle.
2) Submucosa – thick connective tissue layer containing nerves blood vessels and
small glands.
3) Muscularis – inner layer of circular smooth muscle and an outer layer of
longitudinal smooth muscle.
a) Exceptions superior esophagus has striated muscle, and the stomach has three
muscular layers.
4) Serosa or Adventitia – connective tissue.

ORAL CAVITY

STRUCTURE
FUNCTION

Lips & Cheeks

Lips
Mastication, speech, & entrance

Frenula
Mucosal folds attach upper lip to alveolar process of the maxilla, and from the
alveolar process of the mandible to lower lip.

Cheeks
Mastication ,speech, & facial expression

Palate

Palate (hard & soft)

Mastication, soft palate prevents food from entering nasal cavity.

Tongue
Movement of food in mouth for mastication, swallowing, taste, speech.

Intrinsic muscles
Flattening and elevating tongue for swallowing.

Extrinsic muscles
Protrude and retract, side to side, and shape change.
Teeth
Mastication and speech

Incisors
Cutting or nipping off food

Canines
Tear and pierce

Premolars
Grinding and crushing

Molars
Grinding and crushing

Salivary glands
Structure
Location

Parotid glands
Just anterior to the ear, bilaterally.

Submandibular glands
Inferior border of the posterior mandible

Sublingual glands
Immediately below the mucus membrane in the floor of the mouth

Saliva
Secretion rate 1 to 1.5L/day
Salivary amylase – serous saliva breaks down apart glucose molecules in starch and
other polysaccharides into disaccharides.
Prevents bacterial infection together with lysozyme
Mucin – proteoglycan that gives saliva a lubricating quality.
Stimulated primarily by the parasympathetics and less by sympathetics.

ESOPHAGUS
Anatomy
Approx. 25 cm.
Between pharynx and stomach
Located in the mediastinum anterior to vertebrae and posterior to trachea.
Esophageal hiatus – opening in diaphragm and ends at stomach.
4 tunics, mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and adventitia.
Upper esophageal and Lower esophageal sphincter – regulate the movement of
materials into and out of esophagus.

Histology
Mucosa stratified squamous epithelium with mucous glands that secret a thick
lubricating mucus.

STOMACH
Anatomy
Enlarged segment in left superior part of abdomen.
Gastroesophageal opening (cardiac) – opening of stomach from esophagus.
Cardiac region – located around the cardiac opening
Fundus – left and superior to the cardiac region.
Body – largest part of stomach curves to the right forming the greater and lesser
curvature.
Pyloric region – region where body narrows
Pyloric opening - joins to the small intestine.
Pyloric sphincter – thick smooth muscle surrounding the pyloric opening.

Histology
Serosa – visceral peritoneum, outer most layer.
Muscularis – three layers, longitudinal layer, circular layer, and an inner oblique
layer.
Rugae – large folds of submucosa and mucosa, allows stomach to stretch.
Stomach is lined with simple columnar cells, with tube like gastric pits, which are
openings for the gastric glands.
Surface mucous cells – produce mucus on the surface and lines the gastric pit.

Gastric gland cells

Mucous neck cells – produce mucus.
Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.
Chief cells – produce pepsinogen.
Endocrine cells –produce regulatory hormones.

SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH

Chyme – food and stomach secretions mixed.

SECRETION
SOURCE
FUNCTION

Mucus
Surface and neck mucus cells .
Lubricates, protects

Intrinsic factor
Parietal cells in gastric glands of the pyloric region.
Binds with and makes more readily absorbed in the ilium VITAMIN B12

Hydrochloric acid
Parietal cells
Low pH bactericidal, denature proteins, provides proper pH for pepsin.

Pepsinogen
Chief cells
Converts to pepsin, catalyzes the cleavage of peptide bonds in proteins.
Functions of Gastrointestinal Hormones
Site of Production
Method of Stimulation
Secretory Effects
Motility Effects

Gastrin

Stomach & duodenum

Distention, partially digested proteins, autonomic stim., alcohol & caffeine
Increases gastric secretions
Increased gastric emptying by increasing motility and relaxing pyloric sphincter.

Secretin

Duodenum
Acidity of chyme
Inhibits gastric secretions, stimulates pancreatic secretions, increases the rate
of bile and increases intestinal secretions; mucus secretion
Decreases gastric motility

Cholycystokinin

Intestines
Fatty acids and other lipids
Slightly inhibits gastric secretions, stimulates pancreatic secretions, contraction
of gall bladder, relaxation of hepatopancreatic ampular sphincter.
Decreases gastric motility

Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide

Duodenum & Jejunum

Fatty acids and other lipids
Inhibits gastric secretions
Decreases gastric motility

GASTRIC MOVEMENTS
Mixing of Stomach Contents
Gentle mixing waves which are peristalsis like contractions proceed from the body
toward the pyloric sphincter. 80%
Peristaltic waves occur less frequently, significantly more powerful, force chyme
near the periphery of the stomach toward the pyloric sphincter. 20%

Stomach Emptying
Fluids remain in the stomach approx. 1.5 to 2.5 hours, food approx. 3 to 4 hours.
Each peristaltic contraction is strong enough to force a small amount of chyme
through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum, this is referred to as Pyloric
Pump.

Regulation of stomach emptying

Hormonal - Gastrin
CNS - distention of stomach wall and local reflexes
All promote increased in stomach emptying.

SMALL INTESTINE
Consists of three parts; the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ilium.
Length approx. 4.6 to 9 meters (14 to 29 feet).
Site of greatest amount of digestion and absorption.
8 to 8.5 liters of water enter the small intestine per day.

Duodenum
Begins with a short superior end, which is where it exits the pylorus of the
stomach, and ends in a sharp bend, where it joins the jejunum.
Major duodenal papilla & lesser duodenal papilla - two small mounds 2/3 of the down
the descending part. At the major papilla the common bile duct and pancreatic
duct join to form the hepatopancreatic ampular sphincter which empties into the
duodenum.
Hepatopancreatic sphincter - regulates the opening of the ampular.
Internal surface has modifications which increase surface area about 600 fold.
Circular folds - mucosa and submucosa form a series of folds.
Villi- tiny fingerlike projections of the mucosa, simple columnar epithelium,
contains blood capillary network and lacteals.
Microvilli - most of the cells of the surface of the villi have these numerous
cytoplasmic projections to further increase surface area.
Brush border - the combined microvilli on the entire epithelial surface.

Cells of Duodenum
Cells
Function

Absorptive
Microvilli, produce digestive enzymes, absorb digested food

Goblet
Produce a protective mucus

Granular cells
Protect the intestinal epithelium from bacteria

Endocrine
Produce regulatory hormones

JEJUNUM & ILEUM

Similar in structure to duodenum, EXCEPT
1. Except a gradual decrease in the size of the lumen.
2. Decrease in thickness of the intestinal wall
3. Number of circular folds decrease
Decrease in number of microvilli.
The duodenum and jejunum are major sites of nutrient absorption.
Lymph nodes called Peyer’s Patches are numerous in the mucosa and submucosa of the
ileum.
Ileocecal junction – junction between the ileum and the large intestine.
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth muscle.
Ileocecal valve – one-way flow.

SECRETIONS
Duodenal glands, intestinal glands, and goblet cells secrete large amounts of
mucus.
Mucus provides most of the wall with protection from the acidic chyme, and
digestive enzymes.
Secretin & Cholycystokinin are released from the intestinal mucosa and stimulate
pancreatic and hepatic secretions.
Enzymes of the intestinal mucosa are bound to the membranes of the absorptive cell
microvilli.
1. Disaccharidase – breaks down disaccharides to monosaccharides.
2. Peptidase – hydrolyze the peptide bonds of amino acid chains.
3. Nucleases – break down nucleic acids.

MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL INTESTINES

Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary mechanical events.
Mechanical movement occurs due to segmental or peristaltic contractions of the
smooth muscle wall, only propagated small distances.
Segmental contractions – mix intestinal contents.
Peristaltic contractions – propel the intestinal contents along the entire length
of the intestine.
Wave of contraction can begin in the stomach.
Rate of movement 1cm/min

Regulation
1. Distention of intestinal wall
2. Hypertonic or hypotonic solutions
3. pH of contents

Ileocecal sphincter – the juncture between the ileum and the large intestine,
remains mildly contracted, peristaltic wave will relax and allow movement of chyme
from the small intestine to the large intestine.

LARGE INTESTINES
Extends from the ileocecal junction to the anus.
Consists of; cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal.

Cecum
Proximal end of the large intestine.
Extends approx. 6cm. Inferiorly past the ileocecal junction to form a blind sac.
Vermis Appendix – a small blind tube extending approx. 9cm from the blind sac.
Contains many lymph nodes.

Colon
Consists of four part;
1. Ascending colon
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
Sigmoid colon

The circular muscular layer of the colon is complete, but the longitudinal layer of
muscle is incomplete
The mucosal lining consists of simple columnar epithelium.
Lining is not folded or villi, but has numerous straight tubules glands called
crypts.
Crypts are similar to the glands of the small intestine, with absorptive, goblet,
and granular cells.
The major difference is goblet cells are the predominate cell type while the others
decrease in number.

Rectum
Straight muscular tube that begins at the termination of the sigmoid colon and ends
at the anal canal
Simple columnar epithelium.
The muscular tunic is relatively thick compared to the rest of the digestive tract.
Anal Canal
Last 2 to 3cm. Of the digestive tract.
Begins at the inferior end of the rectum an ends at the anus.
The smooth muscle layer is even thicker than that of the rectum.
Internal anal sphincter – superior end of anal canal.
External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle, inferior end of the canal.
Simple columnar to stratified squamous from superior to inferior anal canal.

Secretions of Large Intestines

Major secretory product MUCUS.
Mucus lubricates and helps fecal matter to stick together.
Numerous microorganisms inhabit the colon and constitute approx. 30% of the dry
weight of feces.
These microorganisms break down vitamin K for absorption and breakdown a small
amount of cellulose to glucose.
Flatus – bacterial action produce gases, which are released. The amount of
flatulence depends on the number of microorganisms and the type of food.

Movement in the Large Intestines

Peristaltic waves are largely responsible for moving chyme along the ascending
colon.
Mass Movements – several strong contractions in the transverse and descending
colon. This large contraction propels the colon contents a considerable distance
toward the anus.
Defecation Reflex – local reflex distention of the rectal wall by feces, weak
contractions of the rectum and relaxation of internal and external anal sphincters.
Parasympathetic reflexes cause strong contractions of the rectum, normally
responsible for most of defecation.

LIVER
Production of bile.
ANATOMY
Largest gland in the body
Occupies most of the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions. Inferior to
diaphragm, protected by ribs.
Four lobes:Right lobe – largest; Left lobe; Caudate lobe – posterior; Quadrate lobe
– inferior to left lobe
Falciform Ligament separates right and left lobes, suspends liver the liver from
the diaphragm.
Porta hepatis – entrance for the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein, and common
hepatic duct.

HISTOLOGY
Each functional unit is called a liver lobule. Roughly hexagonal in shape.
Hepatocytes – liver cells, plates of hepatocytes are arranged around a central
vein.
Portal triad – located at each of the six corners, three basic structures are
always present, Hepatic artery, Hepatic portal vein, and bile duct.

BILE
Fat emulsifier
Yellow green alkaline solution
Contains
Bile salts, Bile pigments, Cholesterol neutral fats , Phospholipids, Electrolytes

GALL BLADDER
Storage of bile
Concentration of bile.
Thin walled, green, muscular sac.
Located in a shallow fossa on the ventral surface of the liver.
Secretes bile by muscular wall contracting, bile travels out the Cystic duct and
then flows to the bile duct.

PANCREAS
Lies deep to the stomach.
Produces a broad spectrum of digestive enzymes.
Pancreatic juice- exocrine product, drains via the Main pancreatic duct.
Acini – small clusters of secretory cells.
Secretions
Pancreatic juice, Trypsinogen, Carboxypeptidase, Chymotrypsin, Amylases, Lipases,
Nucleases

CHEMICAL DIGESTION
Carbohydrates
Salivary amylase, Pancreatic amylase, Dextrinase, Glucoamylase, Maltase, Sucrase,
Lactase

Proteins
Pepsin, Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase, Aminopeptidase, Dipeptidase

Lipids
Lipases

Nucleic acids
Pancreatic nucleases, Nucleosidase, Phosphatases.
ABSORPTION
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides are transported thought out the epithelial cell walls with protein
carriers.

Proteins
Amino acids are transported using several types of carrier molecules, before
entering the blood via diffusion.
Lipids
Micelles – collection of fatty elements clustered together with bile salts.
Easily diffuse through microvilli.
Fat digestion completed in the ileum.

Nucleic acids
Transported actively across epithelium by special carriers.