224

Chapter 7

Integration

The “reverse” of differentiation is called integration. If F ′ (x) = f (x), then F (x) is

the antiderivative of f (x); or
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C,

where in the integral sign, f (x) is the integrand and f (x) dx is the indefinite
R R

integral. Whereas differentiation determines the slope of a tangent line to a curve,

integration determines the area under a curve.

7.1 Antiderivatives
xn+1
• power rule xn dx = + C, n 6= −1
R
n+1

• constant multiple rule k · f (x) dx = k f (x) dx + C

R R

• sum or difference rule [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx

R R R

• exponential functions
ekx
1. ekx dx = + C, k 6= 0
R
k
akx
2. akx dx = + C, a > 0, a 6= 1
R
k(ln a)

1 dx
• dx = x−1 dx = = ln |x| + C
R R R
x x

Use boundary conditions to determine the constant of integration, C.

Exercise 7.1 (Antiderivatives)

1. Antiderivatives, derivatives and constants of integration.

225
226 Chapter 7. Integration (LECTURE NOTES 1)

(a) (i) True (ii) False

If F (x) = 5x, then F ′ (x) = 5(1)x1−1 = 5x0 = 5 is the derivative and so
the original function, F (x) = 5x, is an antiderivative.

(b) An antiderivative of F ′ (x) = 5 is F (x) = (i) 5x2 (ii) 5x (iii) 5

d d
Check if F (x) = 5x is the antiderivative of F ′ (x) = 5: dx
F (x) = dx
(5x) = 5, so, yes, it is

(c) An antiderivative of F ′ (x) = −3 is F (x) = (i) −3x2 (ii) −3 (iii) −3x

d d
F (x) = −3x is the antiderivative of F ′ (x) = −3 because dx
F (x) = dx
(−3x) = −3

(d) An antiderivative of F ′ (x) = x is F (x) = (i) 32 x2 (ii) 12 x2 (iii) 1

2
1 2 d d 1 2

1
F (x) = 2
x is the antiderivative of F ′ (x) = x because dx
F (x) = dx 2
x = 2
(2)x2−1 =x

(e) An antiderivative of F ′ (x) = x is F (x) = (i) 12 x2 + 7 (ii) 32 x2 (iii) 1

2
1 2 d 1 2

1
F (x) = 2
x + 7 is the antiderivative of F ′ (x) = x because dx 2
x +7 = 2
(2)x2−1 +0=x

(f) An antiderivative of F ′ (x) = x is (i) 21 x2 − 39 (ii) 23 x2 (iii) −39

1 2 d d 1 2


F (x) = 2
x − 39 is the antiderivative of F ′ (x) = x because dx
F (x) = dx 2
x − 39 = x

(g) The antiderivative of F ′ (x) = x is (i) 23 x + C (ii) 21 x2 + C 1

2
(iii)
1 2 d d 1 2


F (x) = 2
x antiderivative of F ′ (x) = x + C because dx
F (x) = dx 2
x + C = x, if C is a constant

(h) The antiderivative of F ′ (x) = 5x is (i) 25 x2 (ii) C (iii) 52 x2 + C

d d 5 2


F (x) = 5 antiderivative of F ′ (x) = 5x because dx
F (x) = dx 2
x + C = 5, where C constant

2. Power rule rule, constant multiple rule and notation.

(a) The antiderivative of F ′ (x) = 5 = 5x0 , or, equivalently, the integral of 5x0
1 0+1
Z Z Z  
0 0
F (x) = f (x) dx = 5x dx = 5 x dx = 5 x +C =
0+1
(i) 5C (ii) 5 + 5C (iii) 5x + C
since C is any constant, 5 × C is also any constant, so just keep calling it C;
d d
also, F (x) = 5x + C integral of 5 because dx
F (x) = dx
(5x + C) = 5, where C constant

(b) The integral of 4 = 4x0

1 0+1
Z Z  
F (x) = 4x0 dx = 4 x0 dx = 4 x +C =
0+1
Section 1. Antiderivatives (LECTURE NOTES 1) 227

(i) C (ii) 4 + C (iii) 4x + C

This is an example of the power rule listed above

(c) The integral of k, k a constant,

1 0+1
Z Z Z  
k dx = kx0 dx = k x0 dx = k x +C =
0+1
(i) C (ii) k + C (iii) kx + C
This is an example of the power rule and also multiple constant rule listed above.

(d) The integral of f (x) = x = x1 ,

Z
1 1+1
x1 dx = x +C =
1+1
(i) C (ii) 21 x2 (iii) 12 x2 + C
1 2 d 1 2

1
F (x) = 2
x + C, where C constant, integral of x2 because dx 2
x +C = 2
(2)x1−1 +0=x

(e) The integral of f (x) = x2 ,

1 2+1
Z
x2 dx = x +C =
2+1
(i) C (ii) 31 x3 (iii) 13 x3 + C
R
A word on notation: Both the integral sign “ ” and the differential “dx” are necessary com-
ponents to say you want to integrate the function enclosed between them, in this case, x2 .
R
Neither “ ” nor “dx” are part of the function. They do not have to be “solved” or “calculated”
or “determined” in any sense. They are simply the notation used to say the function is to be integrated.

(f) Integral of f = x10 ,

1
Z
x10 dx = x10+1 + C =
10 + 1
1 5
(i) 11
x (ii) 15 x11 + 11 (iii) 1 11
11
x +C

(g) Integral of f = x−5 ,

Z
1
x−5 dx = x−5+1 + C =
−5 + 1
(i) − 41 x−4 + C (ii) − 16 x−5 + C (iii) − 15 x−6 + C
228 Chapter 7. Integration (LECTURE NOTES 1)

(h) Integral of f = x−7 ,

1
Z
x−7 dx = x−7+1 + C =
−7 + 1

(i) − 61 x−8 + C (ii) − 18 x−8 + C (iii) − 16 x−6 + C

(i) Integral of f = 3x10 ,

1
Z Z  
10 10
3x dx = 3 x dx = 3 x10+1 + C =
10 + 1
3 3
(i) 11
x +C (ii) 13 x11 + C (iii) 3 11
11
x +C

(j) Integral of f = −3x10 ,

1
Z   Z  
−3x10 dx = −3 x10 dx = −3 x10+1 + C =
10 + 1
3 3
(i) − 11 x +C (ii) 13 x11 − 3C 3 11
(iii) − 11 x +C

(k) Integral of f = kx, k a constant,

1 1+1
Z Z  
1
kx dx = kx dx = k x +C =
1+1

(i) C (ii) k + C (iii) k2 x2 + C

√
(l) Integral of f = 4
x,
Z √ Z
1 1 1 1 1
+ 44
4
x dx = x 4 dx = 1 x 4 +1 + C = 1 4x
4 +C =
4
+1 4
+4
5 5
(i) C (ii) 45 x 4 + C (iii) 45 x 4 + C

√
(m) Integral of f = 6 5 x,

√
! !
1 1
Z Z
1 1 6
6 x dx =
5
6x dx = 6
5
1 x 5 +1 + C =6 6x
5 +C =
5
+1 5

6 6 6
(i) x 5 + C (ii) 6x 5 + C (iii) 5x 5 + C
Section 1. Antiderivatives (LECTURE NOTES 1) 229

√
(n) Integral of f = 6 5 x,
Z √ Z
1
6 x dx = 6x 5 dx =
5

6 6 6
(i) 5x 5 + m (ii) 5x 5 + k (iii) 5x 5 + C
All are correct as long as k, m and C are all constants.

3. Integration for exponential, logarithm and other functions.

1
(a) Integral of f = x
= x−1 , Z
x−1 dx =

(i) −2x−2 + C (ii) ln |x| + C (iii) 3 ln |x| + C

1
This is the x
integration rule above;
x0
R x−1+1
but not the power rule because x−1 dx = −1+1
= 0
which does not exist.

3
(b) Integral of f = x
= 3x−1 , Z
3x−1 dx =

(i) −6x−2 + C (ii) ln |x| + C (iii) 3 ln |x| + C

(c) Integral of f = ex , Z
ex dx =

(i) C (ii) ex + C (iii) ex

This is one of the exponential function integration rules above

(d) Integral of f = 5e3x ,

1
Z Z  
3x
5e dx = 5 3x
e dx = 5 e3x + C =
3
(i) 31 e3x + C (ii) 31 x11 + C (iii) 35 e3x + C
This is another one of the exponential function integration rules above

(e) Integral of f = 5e−3x ,

1 −3x
Z  
3x
e dx = 5 e +C =
−3

(i) 13 e3x + C (ii) − 53 ex + C (iii) −5e3x + C

230 Chapter 7. Integration (LECTURE NOTES 1)

(f) Integral of 5x − 7x3 ,

1 1+1 1 3+1
Z   Z Z    
5x − 7x3 dx = 5 x dx−7 x3 dx = 5 x −7 x +C =
1+1 3+1
           
x3 x4 x2 x4 x2 x4
(i) 5 3
−7 4
+C (ii) 5 2
+7 4
+C (iii) 5 2
−7 4
+C

(g) Integral of 3x−1 + 1,

1 0+1
Z   Z Z  
3x−1 + 1 dx = 3 x−1 dx + x0 dx = 3 ln |x| + x +C =
0+1
(i) 3 ln |x| + x2 + C (ii) 3 ln |x| + x + C (iii) 3ex + x2 + C

√
(h) Integral of 6e3x + 3
x,
Z 
3x
√  Z
3x
Z
1

1 3x

1 1
6e + x dx = 6 e dx + x dx = 6 e
3 3 + 1 x 3 +1 + C =
3 3
+1
4 4 4
(i) 2e3x + 43 e 3 + C (ii) e3x + 43 e 3 + C (iii) 2e3x + 34 e 3 + C

4. Integration with boundary or initial conditions: determining C.

(a) Integrate f ′ (x) = 5x2 , where f (−1) = 5.

 
1
Since (5x2 ) dx = 5 2+1 x2+1 + C =
R

(i) 13 e3x + C (ii) 35 x3 + C (iii) 5e3x + C

and since f (−1) = 5, then f (−1) = 53 (−1)3 + C = 5, or

C = (i) 5 (ii) 20
3
(iii) 5e3x

and so f (x) = 53 x3 + C =
(i) 53 x3 + C (ii) 53 x3 + 15
3
(iii) 35 x3 + 20
3

(b) Integrate f ′ (x) = 5x2 , where f (−1) = 6.

 
1
Since (5x2 ) dx = 5 2+1 x2+1 + C =
R

(i) 13 e3x + C (ii) 35 x3 + C (iii) 5e3x + C

and since f (−1) = 6, then f (−1) = 53 (−1)3 + C = 6, or

C = (i) 6 (ii) 23
3
(iii) 21
3
Section 1. Antiderivatives (LECTURE NOTES 1) 231

and so f (x) = 53 x3 + C =
(i) 53 x3 + C (ii) 53 x3 + 21
3
(iii) 35 x3 + 23
3

(c) Integrate f ′ (x) = 6x−1 , where f (2) = 4.

Since (6x−1 ) dx = 6 (ln |x|) + C =

R

(i) 6x−1 + C (ii) −6 ln x + C (iii) 6 ln |x| + C

and since f (2) = 4, then f (2) = 6 ln |2| + C = 4, or

C = (i) 4 + 6(2) (ii) 4 − 6 ln 2 (iii) 4 + 6 ln 2

and so f (x) = 6 ln |2| + C =

(i) − 26 x−2 + 19
4
(ii) 6 ln |x| + 4 − 6 ln(2) (iii) − 26 x−2 + 21
4

5. Application: economics. Find total cost function, C(x), such that marginal cost
is C ′ (x) = x2 − 2x and where fixed costs are $45 (in other words, C(0) = 45).
1 2
(a) Since C(x) = C ′ (x) dx = (x2 − 2x) dx = 2+1 x2+1 − x1+1 +k =
R R
1+1
(i) 31 e3x + k (ii) 13 x3 − x2 + k (iii) 5e3x + k
Let’s use constant k instead of C, to avoid confusion with cost C.

(b) and C(0) = 45, then C(0) = 31 (0)3 − (0)2 + k = 45, or,
k = (i) 5 + 53 (ii) 20
3
(iii) 45

(c) and so C(x) = C ′ (x) dx = 31 x3 − x2 + k =

R

(i) 35 x3 + C (ii) 13 x3 − x2 (iii) 31 x3 − x2 + 45

6. Application: physics. Find position function s(t) of a rolling ball such that
velocity function is v(t) = s′ (t) = 6t3 and where the ball is 9 meters from the
start position at time zero (s(0) = 9).
6 3+1
(a) Since s(t) = s′ (t) dt = (6t3 ) dt = 3+1 +C =
R R
t
1 3t 3 4 3t
(i) 3 e + C (ii) 2 t + C (iii) 5e + C

(b) and s(0) = 9, then s(0) = 32 (0)4 + C = 9, or,

C = (i) 9 (ii) 39 (iii) e9

(c) and so s(t) = s′ (t) dx = 32 t4 + C =

R

(i) 23 t4 − 5 (ii) 32 t4 + 0 (iii) 23 t4 + 9

232 Chapter 7. Integration (LECTURE NOTES 1)

7. Application: more physics. Find velocity function v(t) of a rolling ball such
that acceleration function is a(t) = v ′ (t) = −7t4 and where the ball has velocity
-3 meters per second at time 2 (v(2) = −3).
−7 4+1
(a) Since v(t) = v ′ (t) dt = (−7t4 ) dt = 4+1 +C =
R R
t
1 3t 7 5 3t
(i) 3 e + C (ii) − 5 t + C (iii) 5e + C

(b) and v(2) = −3, then v(2) = − 75 (2)5 + C = −3, or,

C = (i) 9 (ii) − 120
5
(iii) 209
5

(c) and so v(t) = v ′ (t) dx = − 57 t5 + C =

R

(i) (i) − 57 t5 − 120

5
(ii) − 75 t5 (iii) − 57 t5 + 209
5

7.2 Substitution
We look at an integration technique called substitution, which often simplifies a com-
plicated integration. Roughly, the substitution integration technique is the reverse of
the chain rule differentiation technique. We use the following formulas as a basis for
the substitution technique, after substituting u = f (x) (and so du = f ′ (x)dx).
un+1
• [f (x)]n f ′ (x) dx becomes un du = + C, n 6= 1
R R
n+1

• ef (x) f ′ (x) dx becomes eu du = eu + C

R R

f ′ (x) 1
• dx becomes du = u−1 du = ln |u| + C
R R R
f (x) u

Substitution method typically concerned with three cases; chose substitution u to be

• quantity under root or raised to a power

• quantity in denominator

• exponent of e

and allow for constants. We also look at how to deal with fractions in integration.

Exercise 7.2 (Substitution)

1. Power Function and Integral Substitution Technique.

Section 2. Substitution (LECTURE NOTES 1) 233

3
√ 3
1
(a) Find f (x) dx = 3x + x2 (3 + 2x) dx = (3x + x2 ) 2 (3 + 2x) dx.
R R R
2 2

guess u = 3x + x2
then du
dx
= 3(1)x1−1 + 2x2−1R= 3 + 2x or du = (3 + 2x) dx
substituting u and du into f (x) dx,
!
3Z  1
2 2 3Z 1 3 1 1
3x + x (3 + 2x) dx = u 2 du = 1 u 2 +1 + C =
2 2 2 2
+1
3 1 3
(i) 2
+C (ii) 23 u 2 + C (iii) u 2 + C

but u = 3x + x2 , so Z
3
f (x) dx = u 2 + C =
3 3 3
(i) (3 + 2x) 2 + C (ii) (3x + x2 ) 2 + C (iii) (3x2 + x3 ) 2 + C

3
5
+ x2 ) 2 (3 + 2x) dx.
R R
(b) Find f (x) dx = 2
(3x

guess u = 3x + x2
then du
dx
= 3(1)x1−1 + 2x2−1R= 3 + 2x or du = (3 + 2x) dx
substituting u and du into f (x) dx,
!
5 3 5 5 1
Z  Z
3 3
2
3x + x 2
(3 + 2x) dx = u du =
2
3 u 2 +1 + C =
2 2 2 2
+1
5 3 5
(i) 2
+C (ii) 25 u 2 + C (iii) u 2 + C

but u = 3x + x2 , so Z
5
f (x) dx = u 2 + C =
3 3 5
(i) (3 + 2x) 2 + C (ii) (3x + x2 ) 2 + C (iii) (3x + x3 ) 2 + C

1 √3+2x 1 − 21
(c) Find f (x) dx = dx = (3x + x2 ) (3 + 2x) dx.
R R R
2 3x+x2 2
√
guess u = (i) 3x + x2 (ii) 3 + 2x (iii) 3x + x2

then du
dx
= 3(1)x1−1 + 2x2−1R= 3 + 2x or du = (3 + 2x) dx
substituting u and du into f (x) dx,
!
1  1 1 1 1
Z  Z
2 −2 − 21 1
3x + x (3 + 2x) dx = u du = 1 u− 2 +1 + C =
2 2 2 −2 + 1
234 Chapter 7. Integration (LECTURE NOTES 1)

3 3 1
(i) 2
+C (ii) 12 u 2 + C (iii) u 2 + C

but u = 3x + x2 , so Z
1
f (x) dx = u 2 + C =
3 1 5
(i) (3 + 2x) 2 + C (ii) (3x + x2 ) 2 + C (iii) (3x + x3 ) 2 + C

− 21
(d) Find √9+6x dx = (3x + x2 ) (9 + 6x) dx.
R R
3x+x2
√
guess u = (i) 3x + x2 (ii) 3 + 2x (iii) 3x + x2

then du
dx
= 3(1)x1−1 + 2x2−1 = 3 + 2x or du = (3 + 2x) dx
substituting u and du into f (x) dx,
R

Z  − 1 Z  − 1
3x + x2 2
(9 + 6x) dx = 3x + x2 2
(3)(3 + 2x) dx
Z Z
− 21 1
= u (3)du = 3 u− 2 du
!
1 1
= 3 1 u− 2 +1 + C =
−2 + 1
3 3 1
(i) 2
+C (ii) 32 u 2 + C (iii) 6u 2 + C

but u = 3x + x2 , so Z
1
f (x) dx = 6u 2 + C =
3 1 5
(i) 23 (3 + 2x) 2 + C (ii) 6(3x + x2 ) 2 + C (iii) (3x + x3 ) 2 + C

4
(e) Find 5 (−2x4 + 7x) (−8x3 + 7) dx.
R

4
guess u = (i) (−2x4 + 7x) (ii) −8x3 + 7 (iii) −2x4 + 7x

then du
dx
= −2(4)x4−1 + 7(1)x 1−1
= −8x3 + 7 or du = (−8x3 + 7) dx
substituting u and du into f (x) dx,
R

1
Z  4 Z  
5 −2x4 + 7x (−8x3 + 7) dx = 5 u4 du = 5 u4+1 + C =
4+1
(i) 5 + C (ii) 5u5 + C (iii) u5 + C

but u = −2x4 + 7x, so

Z
f (x) dx = u5 + C =
Section 2. Substitution (LECTURE NOTES 1) 235

5 6 5
(i) (−2x4 + 7x) +C (ii) (−2x4 + 7x) +C (iii) 5(−2x4 + 7x) +C

6
(f) Find f (x) dx = (3x3 + 2x2 − 4x) (9x2 + 4x − 4) dx.
R R

guess u = (i) 3x3 + 2x2 − 4x (ii) 9x2 + 4x − 4

then du = (3(3)x3−1 + 2(2)x2−1 − 4(1)x1−1 ) dx = (9x2 + 4x + 4) dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,
R

1
Z  6   Z  
3 2 2 6
3x + 2x − 4x 9x + 4x − 4 dx = u du = u6+1 + C =
6+1
(i) 71 u7 + C (ii) 17 u6 + C (iii) u7 + C

but u = 3x3 + 2x2 − 4x, so

1
Z
f (x) dx = u7 + C =
7
7
(i) 71 (3x3 + 2x2 − 4x) + C
7
(ii) (3x3 + 2x2 − 4x) + C
7
(iii) 7(3x3 + 2x2 − 4x) + C

6
(g) Find (1 + 4x2 ) (15x) dx.
R

guess u = (i) 1 + 4x2 (ii) 15x

then du = (0 + 4(2)x2−1 ) dx = (i) (8x) dx (ii) (1 + 8x) dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

Z  6 Z  6  15  15 Z 6 15 1
 
1 + 4x2 (15x) dx = 1 + 4x2 (8x) dx = u du = u6+1 + C =
8 8 8 6+1
15 7 15 7
(i) 8
u +C (ii) 56
u +C (iii) u7 + C

but u = 1 + 4x2 , so
15 7
Z
f (x) dx = u +C =
56
1 7
(i) 56 (1 + 4x2 ) + C
7
(ii) 15
56
(1 + 4x2 ) + C
7
(iii) 15(1 + 4x2 ) + C
236 Chapter 7. Integration (LECTURE NOTES 1)

R √ 1
(h) Find f (x) dx = x x + 5 dx = x(x + 5) 2 dx.
R R

√
guess u = (i) x + 5 (ii) x + 5

then du = dx and also x = u − 5

substituting u, du and x into f (x) dx,

R
Z Z
1 1
x(x + 5) 2 dx = (u − 5)(u) 2 du
Z 
3 1

= u 2 − 5u 2 du
Z Z
3 1
= u 2 du − 5 u 2 du
!
1 3 1 1
= 3 u 2 +1 − 5 1 u 2 +1 + C =
2
+1 2
+1
5 5 3 3
(i) 52 u 2 + C (ii) 52 u 2 − 10 2
3
u +C (iii) 10u 2 + C

but u = x + 5, so
2 5 10 3
Z
f (x) dx = u 2 − u 2 + C =
5 3
5 3
(i) 52 (x + 5) 2 − 10
3
(x + 5) 2 + C
3
(ii) − 10
3
(x + 5) 2 + C
5
(iii) 25 (x + 5) 2 + C

2. Exponential Function and Substitution Technique.

e(7+x ) (3x2 ) dx.

R 3
(a) Find

guess u = (i) 7 + x3 (ii) 3x2

then du = (0 + 3x3−1 ) dx = (i) (1 + 3x2 ) dx (ii) (3x2 ) dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R
Z Z
e(7+x ) 3x2 dx =
3
 
eu du = eu + C

but u = 7 + x3 , so Z
f (x) dx = eu + C =
3 3 3
(i) x3 e7+x + C (ii) 7e7+x + C (iii) e7+x + C
Section 2. Substitution (LECTURE NOTES 1) 237

 1

 √ 
e(−7 x) −7x 2  1

(b) Find f (x) dx = − 27 dx = e − 27 x− 2 dx.
R R R
√
x

1 1
guess u = (i) −7x 2 (ii) − 27 x− 2
     1
  
1 1 7 −1
then du = −7 2
x 2 −1 dx = (i) − 27 x− 2 dx (ii) 2
x 2 dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

 1

7 1
Z  Z
−7x 2
e − x− 2 dx = eu du = eu + C
2
1 √
but u = −7x 2 = −7 x, so
Z
f (x) dx = eu + C =
√ −7√x √
x
√
x
(i) xe +C (ii) −7e−7 +C (iii) e−7 +C
 1

√
e(−7 x) −7x 2  1

(c) Find f (x) dx = dx =
R R R
√
x
e x− 2 dx.
1 1
guess u = (i) −7x 2 (ii) x− 2
   1
  1
  3

1
then du = −7 2
x 2 −1 dx = (i) − 27 x− 2 dx (ii) − 12 x− 2 dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

 1
  1

2 7 1 2
Z Z   Z  
−7x 2 
− 12
 −7x 2 u
e x dx = e − − x− 2 dx = e − du =
7 2 7
(i) − 72 eu + C (ii) −7eu + C (iii) eu + C
1 √
but u = −7x 2 = −7 x, so
2
Z
f (x) dx = − eu + C =
7
√ √ √
(i) − 72 e−7 x
+C (ii) −7e−7 x
+C (iii) e−7 x
+C

2 2
(d) Find f (x) dx = xex dx = ex (x) dx.
R R R

guess u = (i) ex (ii) x2

then du = (2x2−1 ) dx = (i) (2x) dx (ii) (ex ) dx

238 Chapter 7. Integration (LECTURE NOTES 1)

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

1 1
Z Z   Z  
x2 x2 u
e (x) dx = e (2x) dx = e du =
2 2
(i) − 21 eu + C (ii) 12 eu + C (iii) eu + C

but u = x2 , so
1
Z
f (x) dx = eu + C =
2
2 2 2
(i) − 21 ex + C (ii) 12 ex + C (iii) ex + C

2 2
(e) Find f (x) dx = 2x7x dx = 7x (2x) dx.
R R R

2 2 2
notice if y =R 7x , then ln y =R ln 7x = x2 ln 7 or y = ex ln 7
, so
2 2
f (x) dx = 7x (2x) dx = ex ln 7 (2x) dx
R

guess u = (i) x2 ln 7 (ii) x2

then du = (2x2−1 ln 7) dx = (i) (2x ln 7) dx (ii) (eln 7 ) dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

1 1
Z Z Z  
x2 ln 7 x2 ln 7 u
e (2x) dx = e (2x ln 7) dx = e du =
ln 7 ln 7
(i) − ln17 eu + C (ii) 1
ln 7
eu +C (iii) eu + C

but u = x2 ln 7, so
1 u
Z
f (x) dx = e +C =
ln 7
2 2 2
(i) − ln17 ex ln 7 + C (ii) 1
ln 7
ex ln 7 +C (iii) ex ln 7
+C
2
which is ln17 7x + C

3. Logarithmic Function and Substitution Technique.

2+2x −1
(a) Find dx = (2x + x2 ) (2 + 2x) dx.
R R
2x+x2

guess u = (i) 2 + 2x (ii) 2x + x2

then du = (2(1)x1−1 + 2x2−1 ) dx = (i) (2 + 2x2 ) dx (ii) (2 + 2x) dx

Section 2. Substitution (LECTURE NOTES 1) 239

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

Z  Z
2 −1

2x + x (2 + 2x) dx = u−1 du = ln |u| + C

but u = 2x + x2 , so Z
f (x) dx = ln |u| + C =

(i) 2 ln |2x + x2 | + C (ii) ln |2x + x2 | + C (iii) x ln |2x + x2 | + C

4+4x −1
(b) Find dx = (2x + x2 ) (4 + 4x) dx.
R R
2x+x2

guess u = (i) 4 + 4x (ii) 2x + x2

then du = (2(1)x1−1 + 2x2−1 ) dx = (i) (2 + 2x2 ) dx (ii) (2 + 2x) dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

Z  −1 Z  −1 Z
2x + x2 (4 + 4x) dx = 2x + x2 (2)(2 + 2x) dx = u−1 (2) du =

(i) − ln |u| + C (ii) ln |u| + C (iii) 2 ln |u| + C

but u = 2x + x2 , so
Z
f (x) dx = 2 ln |u| + C =

(i) 2 ln |2x + x2 | + C (ii) ln |2x + x2 | + C (iii) x ln |2x + x2 | + C

ln x
(c) Find dx = ln x (x−1 ) dx.
R R
x

guess u = (i) ln x (ii) x−1

then du = (x−1 ) dx = (i) (x−1 ) dx (ii) (−x−2 ) dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

Z  
ln x x−1 dx =

2
(i) u du = 1+11
u1+1 + C = u2 + C
R

(ii) u du = ln|u| + C
R −1

1
(iii) 2 u du = 2 1+1 u1+1 + C = u2 + C
R
240 Chapter 7. Integration (LECTURE NOTES 1)

but u = ln x, so
u2
Z
f (x) dx = +C =
2
(i) 21 (ln x)2 + C (ii) ln | ln x| + C (iii) (ln x)2 + C

ln 8x
(d) Find dx = ln 8x (x−1 ) dx.
R R
x

guess u = (i) ln 8x (ii) x−1

recall if u = f [g(x)] = ln 8x and g(x) = 8x and f (x) = ln x

and g ′ (x) = (i) 8x (ii) 8 (iii) ln 8x

and f ′ (x) = (i) x12 (ii) x1 (iii) 8x
1

and so by chain rule

du 1
= f ′ [g(x)] · g ′(x) = f ′ [8x] · (2) = (8) =
dx 8x
1 2 1
(i) x
= x−1 (ii) x
= 2x−1 (iii) 8x

in other words du = (i) (x−1 ) dx (ii) (−x−2 ) dx

substituting u and du into f (x) dx,

R

Z  
ln 8x x−1 dx =

2
(i) u du = 1+11
u1+1 + C = u2 + C
R

(ii) u du = ln|u| + C
R −1

1
(iii) 2 u du = 2 1+1 u1+1 + C = u2 + C
R

but u = ln 8x, so
u2
Z
f (x) dx = +C =
2
(i) 21 (ln 8x)2 + C (ii) ln | ln 8x| + C (iii) (ln 8x)2 + C

x−5
(e) Find
R
x−4
dx.

notice
x−5 B
= A+
x−4 x−4
Section 3. Area and the Definite Integral 241

A(x − 4) + B
=
x−4
Ax + (B − 4A)
=
x−4
and so A = 1 and B − 4A = −5
and so B = −5 + 4A = −5 + 4(1) = −1
and so x−5
x−4
B
= A + x−4 1
= (i) 1 + x−4 (ii) 1 − 1
x−4
(iii) 1 + 1
x+4

in other words,
x−5 1
Z Z  
dx = 1− dx
x−4 x−4
Z
1Z
= 1 dx − dx
x−4
1
Z Z
0
= x dx − dx
x−4
1 1
Z
1
= x 0+1 − dx
0+1 x−4
1
Z
= x− dx + C
x−4

where, for the second integral, guess u = (i) x − 4 (ii) x

so du = (i) (x−1 ) dx (ii) dx

substituting u and du into second integral,

Z
1
x− dx + C =
x−4
(i) x − u−1 du = x − ln u + C
R

(ii) u−1 du = ln|u| + C

R

1
(iii) 2 u du = 2 1+1 u1+1 + C = u2 + C
R

but u = x − 4, so Z
f (x) dx = x − ln u + C =

(i) 12 (x − 4)2 + C (ii) x − ln(x − 4) + C (iii) (x − 4)2 + C

242 Chapter 7. Integration

7.3 Area and the Definite Integral

So far, we have looked at indefinite integrals; now, we turn to definite integrals. An
indefinite integral determines the area under a curve; a definite integral determines a
specific area under a curve between a lower bound a and an upper bound b.

f(x) f(x)

a b a b
∆x ∆x

Figure 7.1 (Approximating area with sum of rectangles)

As shown in the figure, the area under the curve, between points a and b, can be
approximated by adding the area of n rectangles and this approximation improves
the greater the number of increasingly narrow rectangles. If f is defined on interval
[a, b] the definite integral is
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (xi )∆x
a n→∞
i=1

where the limit exists, ∆x = b−a n

and xi is (somewhere, possibly to the left or to
the right) in the ith interval. We look at different ways the rectangles are summed,
whether using the left endpoints or from the right endpoints or from the middle
endpoints or left and right total areas are averaged. In economic applications, the
definite integral is called total change.

Exercise 7.3 (Area and the Definite Integral)

1. Review of Summation Notation. Consider the following n = 10 temperatures in

Celsius degrees,

x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x4 = 1, x5 = 1,
x6 = 2, x7 = 2, x8 = 3, x9 = 3, x10 = 4

and, remember, formula to convert Celsius degrees, x, to Fahrenheit degrees,

f (x), is f (x) = 59 x + 32. Also, let difference between two temperatures be
∆xi = xi+1 − xi .
Section 3. Area and the Definite Integral 243

(a) Sum of ten temperatures, in Celsius degrees, is

10
X
xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 + x9 + x10 =
i=1

(i) 16 (ii) 18 (ii) 20

STAT ENTER EDIT ENTER; type ten temperatures, 0,0,0,1,1,2,2,3,3,4 into L1 ,
P
then 1–Var Stats L1 ENTER, read = 16

(b) The sum of temperatures i = 3 to i = 8 is

P8
i=3 xi = x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 = (i) 6 (ii) 9 (iii) 12
Pn
(c) For n = 4, i=1 xi = (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) 3
P5
(d) i=1 xi = (i) 2 (ii) 5 (iii) 9
P10
(e) i=10 xi = (i) 2 (ii) 4 (iii) 9
(f) The average of the n = 10 temperatures is
1 Pn
n i=1 xi = (i) 1.6 (ii) 4 (iii) 9
1–Var Stats L1 ENTER, read x̄ = 1.6.
P4
(g) i=1 i = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = (i) 9 (ii) 10 (iii) 11
P10
(h) i=1 i = (i) 55 (ii) 56 (iii) 57
Type 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10 into L2 , then 1–Var Stats L2 ENTER gives 55
P
or MATH summation X 10 X ENTER gives = 55.
P4
(i) i=1 i2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = (i) 20 (ii) 30 (iii) 40
P4
(j) i=1 (i · xi ) = (1 · 0) + (2 · 0) + (3 · 0) + (4 · 1) = (i) 4 (ii) 6 (iii) 7
P10
(k) i=1 (i · xi ) = (i) 125 (ii) 126 (iii) 127
P
STAT ENTER, define L3 = L2 × L1 , then 1–Var Stats L3 , read = 126
P4
(l) i=1 (i + xi ) = (1 + 0) + (2 + 0) + (3 + 0) + (4 + 1) =
(i) 10 (ii) 11 (iii) 12
(m) Since ∆xi = xi+1 − xi , sum of differences for temperatures 1 to 6 is
5
X
∆xi = ∆x1 + ∆x2 + ∆x3 + ∆x4 + ∆x5
i=1
= (x2 − x1 ) + (x3 − x2 ) + (x4 − x3 ) + (x5 − x4 ) + (x6 − x5 )
= (0 − 0) + (0 − 0) + (1 − 0) + (1 − 1) + (2 − 1)
= 0+0+1+0+1=

(i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 4

Notice sum of differences for temperatures 1 to 6 involves five (5), not six (6) differences;
always one less difference than number of numbers (which are temperatures in this case)
244 Chapter 7. Integration

P9
(n) i=1 ∆xi = (i) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) 8
P
L3 = ∆ListL1 (type 2nd LIST OPS 7:∆List), then 1–Var Stats L3 , read = 4.
P5
(o) i=1 ∆xi 2 = 02 + 02 + 12 + 02 + 12 = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 2
P5
(p) i=1 i∆xi = 1(0) + 2(0) + 3(1) + 4(0) + 5(1) = (i) 3 (ii) 5 (iii) 8
(q) Since f (x) = 59 x + 32, sum of ten temperatures, in Fahrenheit degrees,
10
X
f (xi ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + · · · + f (x10 )
i=1
= f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + · · · + f (4)
9 9 9 9
       
= (0) + 32 + (0) + 32 + (0) + 32 + · · · + (4) + 32
5 5 5 5
= 32 + 32 + 32 + · · · + 39.2 =
(i) 161.4 (ii) 218.2 (iii) 348.8
P
STAT ENTER, define L4 = (9/5)L1 + 32, then 1–Var Stats L4 , read = 348.8

(r) Sum of squares of ten temperatures, in Fahrenheit degrees, is

10
f (xi )2 = f (x1 )2 + f (x2 )2 + f (x3 )2 + · · · + f (x10 )2
X

i=1
= f (0)2 + f (0)2 + f (0)2 + · · · + f (4)2
= 322 + 322 + 322 + · · · + 39.22 =
(i) 12225.76 (ii) 12245.54 (iii) 12343.32
P
Read x2 .
P10
(s) i=1 f (xi )xi =
= f (x1 )x1 + f (x2 )x2 + f (x3 )x3 + · · · + f (x10 )x10
= (f (0) · 0) + (f (0) · 0) + (f (0) · 0) + · · · + (f (4) · 4)
= (32 · 0) + (32 · 0) + (32 · 0) + · · · + (39.2 · 4) =
(i) 589.2 (ii) 591.2 (iii) 643.3
P
Define L5 = L4 × L1 , then 1–Var Stats L5 , read .
P9
(t) i=1 f (xi )∆xi =
= f (x1 )∆x1 + f (x2 )∆x2 + f (x3 )∆x3 + · · · + f (x9 )∆x9
= (f (0) · 0) + (f (0) · 0) + (f (0) · 1) + · · · + (f (3) · 1)
= (32 · 0) + (32 · 0) + (32 · 1) + · · · + (37.4 · 1)
(i) 138.8 (ii) 291.2 (iii) 343.3
since 10 temperatures, f (xi ), but only 9 differences, ∆xi , one f (xi ) must be deleted to multiply them;
deleting last temperature f (x10 ) = 39.2 means differences matched with left endpoint temperatures;
deleting first temperature f (x1 ) = 32 means differences matched with right endpoint temperatures;
P
delete f (x10 ) = 39.2 in L4 , define L5 = L4 × L3 , then 1–Var Stats L5 , read
Section 3. Area and the Definite Integral 245

2. Different methods of approximating area.

f(x 3) = f(3) = 11
11 f(x 5) = f(4) = 10.5
10.5

4 4 4.5
4
f(x2) = f(1) = 1.5 1 f(x 4) = f(3.5) = 11 1.5 1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8.5
x1 x x x x x x x1 x x x x x x 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6
a b a b
∆x ∆x
2
(a) left endpoints 2 (c) right endpoints
1 0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

x1 x x x x x x
2 3 4 5 6 7
a b
∆x notice ∆ x = 1
(b) midpoints
Figure 7.2 (Different methods of approximating area)

Area of smooth function f (x) can be approximated with summed area of seven
rectangles in different ways. Three methods are given in figure, each giving
slightly different approximations, depending on where (to the left, in the middle,
to the right) the xi are defined in each equally spaced interval, ∆x = 1, between
a and b.

(a) Left endpoint rule: xi defined at left endpoints of each ∆x

Sum of areas of all seven rectangles is

= f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + f (x3 )∆x + · · · + f (x7 )∆x

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) + f (x5 ) + f (x6 ) + f (x7 )]
= 1 [f (0) + f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5) + f (6)]
= 1 [0 + 1.5 + 4 + 11 + 10.5 + 5 + 1] =

(i) 32 (ii) 32.25 (iii) 32.5 (iv) 34.5

STAT ENTER then type f (xi ) = 0, 1.5, 4, 11, 10.5, 4, 1 into L1 ,
P
then STAT CALC ENTER 2nd L1 ENTER, read = 32

(b) Midpoint rule: xi defined at midpoints of each ∆x

246 Chapter 7. Integration

Sum of areas of all seven rectangles is

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) + f (x5 ) + f (x6 ) + f (x7 )]

= 1 [f (0.5) + f (1.5) + f (2.5) + f (3.5) + f (4.5) + f (5.5) + f (6.5)]
= 1 [1 + 2 + 9.5 + 11 + 8.5 + 2 + 0.5] =

(i) 32 (ii) 32.25 (iii) 32.5 (iv) 34.5

STAT ENTER then type f (xi ) = 1, 2, 9.5, 11, 8.5, 2, 0.5 into L1 ,
P
then STAT CALC ENTER 2nd L2 ENTER, read

(c) Right endpoint rule: xi defined at right endpoints of each ∆x

Sum of areas of all seven rectangles is

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) + f (x5 ) + f (x6 ) + f (x7 )]

= 1 [f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5) + f (6) + f (7)]
= 1 [1.5 + 4 + 11 + 10.5 + 4.5 + 1 + 0] =

(i) 32 (ii) 32.25 (iii) 32.5 (iv) 34.5

STAT ENTER then type f (xi ) = 1.5, 4, 11, 10.5, 4.5, 1, 0 into L3 ,
P
then STAT CALC ENTER 2nd L3 ENTER, read

(d) Trapezoid rule: average of left and right endpoints rules.

Average area from left and right endpoint rules:

area left endpoint rule + area right endpoint rule 32 + 32.5
= =
2 2
(i) 32 (ii) 32.25 (iii) 32.5 (iv) 34.5

(e) (i) True (ii) False

As number of rectangles increases, the different areas resulting from the
different rules to sum the areas of these rectangles, tend to equal not only
one another, but tend to equal the actual area under the smooth function
f (x) between a and b.

3. Approximating area of triangle, f (x) = 3x.

Section 3. Area and the Definite Integral 247

y = 3x
y = 3x

y = 3x
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
x1 x x x x x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
2 3 4 5
a b a b
(a) left endpoints (c) right endpoints

0 1 2 3 4 5
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
a b
(b) midpoints

Figure 7.3 (Approximating area of triangle)

Calculate area of triangle under f (x) = 3x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5, both exactly and also
using the four approximation methods where n = 5, ∆x = 1, then where n = 50,
so ∆x = 0.1, and then where n = 500, so ∆x = 0.01.

(a) exact area

1 1
area = (5)f (5) = (5)(3(5)) =
2 2
(i) 30 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 45
1
area of triangle equal 2
times base times height.

(b) n = 5, ∆x = 1
i. Left endpoint rule: xi defined at left endpoints of each ∆x

Sum of areas of all five rectangles is

= f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + f (x3 )∆x + f (x4 )∆x + f (x5 )∆x
= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) + f (x5 )]
= 1 [f (0) + f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4)]
= 1 [3(0) + 3(1) + 3(2) + 3(3) + 3(4)] =

(i) 30 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 45

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 0, 4, 1 ) STO 2nd L1 ENTER,
P
then STAT CALC ENTER 2nd L1 ENTER, read = 30
248 Chapter 7. Integration

ii. Midpoint rule: xi defined at midpoints of each ∆x

Sum of areas of all five rectangles is

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) + f (x5 )]

= 1 [f (0.5) + f (1.5) + f (2.5) + f (3.5) + f (4.5)]
= 1 [3(0.5) + 3(1.5) + 3(2.5) + 3(3.5) + 3(4.5)] =

(i) 30 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 45

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 0.5, 4.5, 1 ) STO 2nd L2 ENTER,
P
then STAT CALC ENTER 2nd L2 ENTER, read

iii. Right endpoint rule: xi defined at right endpoints of each ∆x

Sum of areas of all five rectangles is

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + f (x4 ) + f (x5 )]

= 1 [f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5)]
= 1 [3(1) + 3(2) + 3(3) + 3(4) + 3(5)] =

(i) 30 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 45

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 1, 5, 1 ) STO 2nd L3 ENTER,
P
then STAT CALC ENTER 2nd L3 ENTER, read

iv. Trapezoid rule: average of left and right endpoints rules.

Average area from left and right endpoint rules:

area left endpoint rule + area right endpoint rule 30 + 45
= =
2 2
(i) 30 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 45

(c) n = 50, ∆x = 0.1

i. Left endpoint rule

Sum of areas of all 50 rectangles is

= f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + f (x3 )∆x + · · · + f (x50 )∆x

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + · · · + f (x50 )]
= 0.1 [f (0) + f (0.1) + f (0.2) + · · · + f (4.9)]
= 0.1 [3(0) + 3(0.1) + 3(0.2) + · · · + 3(4.9)] =
Section 3. Area and the Definite Integral 249

(i) 36.75 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 38.25

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 0, 4.9, 0.1 ) STO 2nd L1 ENTER,
then 2nd LIST MATH sum ENTER 2nd L1 ) × 0.1 ENTER

ii. Midpoint rule

Sum of areas of all 50 rectangles is

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + · · · + f (x50 )]

= 0.1 [f (0.05) + f (0.15) + f (0.25) + · · · + f (4.95)]
= 0.1 [3(0.05) + 3(0.15) + 3(0.25) + · · · + 3(4.95)] =

(i) 36.75 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 38.25

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 0.05, 4.95, 0.1 ) STO 2nd L2 ENTER,
then 2nd LIST MATH sum ENTER 2nd L2 ) × 0.1 ENTER

iii. Right endpoint rule

Sum of areas of all 50 rectangles is

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + · · · + f (x50 )]

= 0.1 [f (0.1) + f (0.2) + f (0.3) + · · · + f (5)]
= 0.1 [3(0.1) + 3(0.2) + 3(0.3) + · · · + 3(5)] =

(i) 36.75 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 38.25

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 0.1, 5, 0.1 ) STO 2nd L3 STAT ENTER,
then 2nd LIST MATH sum ENTER 2nd L3 ) × 0.1 ENTER

iv. Trapezoid rule

Average area from left and right endpoint rules:

area left endpoint rule + area right endpoint rule 36.75 + 38.25
= =
2 2
(i) 36.75 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 38.25

(d) n = 500, ∆x = 0.01

i. Left endpoint rule

Sum of areas of all 500 rectangles is

= f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + f (x3 )∆x + · · · + f (x500 )∆x

250 Chapter 7. Integration

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + · · · + f (x500 )]

= 0.01 [f (0) + f (0.01) + f (0.02) + · · · + f (4.99)]
= 0.01 [3(0) + 3(0.01) + 3(0.02) + · · · + 3(4.99)] =

(i) 37.425 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 37.575

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 0, 4.99, 0.01 ) STO 2nd L1 STAT ENTER,
then 2nd LIST MATH sum ENTER 2nd L1 ) × 0.01 ENTER

ii. Midpoint rule

Sum of areas of all 500 rectangles is

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + · · · + f (x500 )]

= 0.01 [f (0.005) + f (0.015) + f (0.025) + · · · + f (4.995)]
= 0.01 [3(0.005) + 3(0.015) + 3(0.025) + · · · + 3(4.995)] =

(i) 37.425 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 37.575

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 0.005, 4.995, 0.01 ) STO 2nd L2 STAT ENTER,
then 2nd LIST MATH sum ENTER 2nd L2 ) × 0.01 ENTER

iii. Right endpoint rule

Sum of areas of all 500 rectangles is

= ∆x [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 ) + · · · + f (x500 )]

= 0.01 [f (0.01) + f (0.02) + f (0.03) + · · · + f (5)]
= 0.01 [3(0.01) + 3(0.02) + 3(0.03) + · · · + 3(5)] =

(i) 37.425 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 37.575

2nd LIST OPS seq 3X, X, 0.01, 5, 0.01 ) STO 2nd L3 STAT ENTER,
then 2nd LIST MATH sum ENTER 2nd L3 ) × 0.01 ENTER

iv. Trapezoid rule

Average area from left and right endpoint rules:

area left endpoint rule + area right endpoint rule 37.425 + 37.575
= =
2 2
(i) 37.425 (ii) 37.5 (iii) 37.575

(e) Summary. Recall, exact area under y = 3x and between a = 0 and b = 5

is 37.5. Summary of approximations:
Section 3. Area and the Definite Integral 251

n, ∆x left endpoint midpoint right endpoint trapezoid

5, 1 30 37.5 45 37.5
50, 0.1 36.75 37.5 38.25 37.5
500, 0.01 37.425 37.5 37.575 37.5
As number, n, of rectangles increases, all approximations tend
(i) closer to (ii) away from exact value 37.5.
Best (closest) approximation (choose two):
(i) left endpoint (ii) midpoint (iii) right endpoint (iv) trapezoid