INTEGRATION

1 Introduction

Previously we focused on derivatives. Derivatives are rates of change. But suppose we are
given a derivative of a function- how do we find this function? We need to do the reverse
of differentiation which will enable us to find the anti-derivative which is the function of
interest. The process of finding the anti-derivative of a given derivative is called integration.
There are two types of integrals that we are going to consider, indefinite integrals and
definite
R integrals. With indefinite integrals there are no intervals of integration. We
write f (x)dx.

Figure 1: Indefinite integral.

Rb
While with definite integrals we have intervals of integration- we write a
f (x)dx.

Figure 2: Definite integral.

′
dy d
Given a function y = 3x2 −4x+7 we can obtain the derivative as y = dx = dx
[3x2 − 4x + 7] =
2
6x − 4. Thus the anti-derivative of 6x − 4 is 3x − 4x + 7 in this case.

Suppose we are given the derivative of a function as f (x) = 8x + 4, and we are asked
to obtain the function that was differentiated (i.e. find the anti-derivative). Some of the
possible functions are

• 4x2 + 4x + 3 • 4x2 + 4x
• 4x2 + 4x − 0.5
• 4x2 + 4x − 1000 • 4x2 + 4x + 7
9

1
There are many. 4x2 + 4x will appear in all possibilities that we can have. The difference is
the constant (3, −0.5, −1000, 0 and 97 ). If these constants can be represented by an arbitrary
constant, say C, we can have a general form. Thus the anti-derivative will be 4x2 + 4x + C.
Suppose we let 4x2 + 4x be F (x), then we have F (x) + C.

Given a function f (x), an anti-derivative of f (x) is any function F (x) such that
′
F (x) = f (x).

2 Indefinite Integral

If F (x) is an anti-derivative of f (x), the most general form of the anti-derivative of f (x) is
called the indefinite integral.

When finding the derivative, any constant term becomes zero- all trace of this constant is
lost. We use the constant C (arbitrary) to acknowledge the presence of such constants.

Consider a function f (x) defined in an interval I. suppose there is another function F (x)
defined in I such that

′ dF (x)
F (x) = = f (x)
dx

for every x∈I. Then F (x) is said to be an anti-derivative of f (x) in I. Every anti-derivative-
to be specific, indefinite integral- of f (x) is of the form

F (x) + C.

The process of finding the anti-derivative given a derivative is called integration. Integration
is the reverse of derivation/differentiation.

If F is the anti-derivative of f , we write

Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C.

R R
is the integral symbol. We say that f (x)dx is the indefinite integral of f with respect to
x. f (x) is the integrand, and C is the constant of integration. It follows that
′
F (x) = f (x).

We also have

• d
R 
dx
f (x)dx = f (x).

2
 ′
•
R
F (x)dx = F (x) + C.

Try: Apart from the difference between indefinite and definite integrals provided in the
introduction of this unit, explain any other difference between the two integrals.

2.1 Power Rule

• The derivative of x4 is dx
d
[x4 ] = 4x3 . AssumingRthat we do not know the function which
was differentiated, the antiderivative of 4x3 is 4x3 dx = x4 + C.
• The derivative of x6 is dxd
R
[x6 ] = 6x5 . The antiderivative of 6x5 is 6x5 dx = x6 + C.

In general, the integral of xn is

xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C provided n̸= − 1.
n+1

If functions f and g have anti-derivatives, and k is a constant, then

•
R R R
[f (x)±g(x)]dx = f (x)dx± g(x)dx.
• [kf (x)]dx = k f (x)dx.
R R

• − f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
R R

Note that Z
kdx = kx + C,

where k is a constant.

Example: Evaluate
R R
1. x2 dx 3. xdx
R R
2. 4x5 dx 4. − 70dx

Working:

x2+1 x3
R
1. x2 dx = 2+1
+C = 3
+ C.

3
 4x5+1 4x6 2x6
R
2. 4x5 dx = 5+1
+C = 6
+C = 3
+ C.
x1+1 2
+ C = x2 + C.
R
3. xdx = 1+1
0+1
4. − 70dx = − 70x0 dx = −70x1
R R
+ C = −70x + C.

Example: Integrate the functions below with respect to x.

1. f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 10
2x+3
2. g(x) = √
x

3. h(x) = y 2 − xy + 4

Working:

1. Given f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 10, we have

3x2+1 2x1+1
Z
 2
+ 10x + C = x3 − x2 + 10x + C.

3x − 2x + 10 dx = −
2+1 1+1
1 1
2. For g(x) = 2x+3
√ ,
x
we have g(x) = 2x 2 + 3x− 2 . Then
Z Z h 3
2x + 3 1
− 12
i 4x 2 1
√ dx = 2x + 3x
2 dx = + 6x 2 + C.
x 3

3. For h(x) = y 2 − xy + 4 we have

x2 y
Z
 2
y − xy + 4 dx = y 2 x −

+ 4x + C.
2

Try: Evaluate the following:

R R
1. − x2 dx. 3. (4x − 2x2 + 3)dx.

6x−2 dx.
R R
2. (y 2 − 6y + 9)dy. 4.

4
We will consider some of the techniques that can enable us integrate a variety of functions.
We will look at reduction to simple form, substitution and integration by parts.

2.2 Reduction to Simple Form

Some functions can be reduced by elementary manipulation to forms that we know to inte-
grate.

Example:
Let us evaluate Z
x(x − 3)2 dx.

Working:

x(x − 3)2 = x x2 − 6x + 9 = x3 − 6x2 + 9x. Then

 

x3+1 6x2+1 9x1+1

Z Z
x(x − 3)2 dx =
 3
x − 6x2 + 9x dx =

− + +C
3+1 2+1 1+1
x4 9x2
= − 2x3 + + C.
4 2

Try: Evaluate
2
1. (x − 3)2 dx.
R R
5. 2x(x2 − 5) dx.
R
2. x(4x − 2x2 + 3)dx. R √ √
R 4 3 2 6. (1 + 2x)(1 − 2x)dx.
3. 2x −xx2 +7x dx.
R h x−x3 i
4. x2 (x + 3)2 dx.
R
7. x3
dx.

2.3 Substitution

2
We can integrate 2x(x2 − 5) with respect to x by first expanding (removing brackets/multiplying
out) the integrand, then finding integrals of individual terms. But suppose we are asked to
20
integrate 2x(x2 − 5) with respect to x. How do we obtain the integral? We can multiply
out but it is going to be tedious.

5
Since 2x is the derivative of x2 − 5 we can employ a technique called substitution. Substitu-
′
′
tion is used to find the integral when the integrand is of the form kf (x).[f (x)]n , [fkf(x)]
(x)
n , or
′
kf (x)[g(f (x))] (may not apply in all cases that require integration by substitution).

Example: Evaluate (use substitution)

R 20
1. 2x(x2 − 5) dx.
R√
2. 2x + 5dx.

Working

R 20 20
1. In 2x(x2 − 5) dx the integrand is a product of expressions 2x and (x2 − 5)
where 2x is the derivative of x2 − 5.
Let u = x2 − 5. Then du
dx
= 2x. Thus du = 2xdx. We have
Z Z Z
2

20
20
2x x − 5 dx = x − 5 2xdx = u20 du
2

u20+1 u21
= +C = + C.
20 + 1 21
21
R 20 (x2 −5)
But u = x2 − 5, then 2x(x2 − 5) dx = 21
+ C.
R√ √ 1
2. In 2x + 5dx the integrand is a product of 1 and 2x + 5 = (2x + 5) 2 where 1
times some constant is the derivative of 2x + 5.
Let u = 2x + 5. Then du
dx
= 2. Thus du2
= dx. We have
√
Z Z Z Z
1 1 du 1 1
2x + 5dx = (2x + 5) 2 dx = u 2 . = u 2 du
2 2
1 3
1 u 2 +1 u2
= .1 +C = + C.
2 2 +1 3
R√ 3
(2x+5) 2
But u = 2x + 5, then 2x + 5dx = 3
+ C.

Try: Using substitution, evaluate

6
 R 5 R 10
1. 4x3 (x4 + 7) dx. 5. (3x2 + 4x) (x3 + 2x2 − 10) dx.

(3x + 10)9 dx.

R 10
2.
R
6. (x4 − 3x3 + 10) (27x2 − 12x3 ) dx.
R 5 √
3. x2 (x3 + 7) dx. 7.
R e√x
dx.
2 x
R 3 4 √
y − 4 . ydy. √ x dx.
R
4. 2
8. x+1

2.4 Integration by Parts

Recall the product rule for differentiation.

d dv du
uv = u + v .
dx dx dx
Let us integrate both sides with respect to x.
Z Z Z Z
dv du
uv = u dx + v dx = udv + vdu.
dx dx
R
Making udv the subject of the formula, we get
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu.
R
When we are evaluating the integral f (x)g(x)dx where reduction to simple form and sub-
stitution have failed, try integration by parts.

There are many approaches to choosing u. I will introduce LIATE only. With LIATE we
choose u to be the function that appears first in the list given below.

• L: Logarithmic function

• I: Inverse trigonometric function

• A: Algebraic function

• T: Trigonometric function

• E: Exponential function

′ dv
The remaining function becomes dv or v (in a case where the variable is x it becomes dx
).

7
 R
Example Evaluate xex dx.

Working: The expression xex can be considered to be a product of the functions x and
ex . Here x is an algebraic function and ex is an exponential function. If we go by LIATE,
dv
the algebraic function appears first, hence we let u = x and dx = ex .

du
Let us differentiate u = x with respect to x. Thus we get dx
= 1, which is the same as
du = dx.

dv
R R
dx
= ex can be given as dv = ex dx. Let us integrate dv = ex dx. We have dv = ex dx
and we get v = ex .

R R
Then using udv = uv − vdu we have
Z Z Z
xe dx = (x)(e dx) = (x)(e ) − (ex )(dx) = xex − ex + C.
x x x

R
Example Evaluate x2 e4x dx.

Working: The expression x2 e4x can be considered to be a product of the functions x2

and e4x . Here x2 is an algebraic function and e4x is an exponential function. If we go by
dv
LIATE, the algebraic function appears first, hence we let u = x2 and dx = e4x .

du
Let us differentiate u = x2 with respect to x. Thus we get dx
= 2x, which is the same as
du = 2xdx.

dv
R R
dx
= e4x can be given as dv = e4x dx. Let us integrate dv = ex dx. We have dv = e4x dx
4x
and we get v = e4 .

R R
Then using udv = uv − vdu we have
Z 4x Z 4x Z
2 4x 2 e e 1 2 4x 1
x e dx = x . − .2xdx = x e − xe4x dx.
4 4 4 2

8
 du
R
To evaluate xe4x dx we will use integration by parts. Let u = x. Then dx
= 1 and
dv 4x
du = dx. Let dx = e4x . Thus we have dv = e4x dx, and v = e4 . Then
Z  Z 
2 4x 1 2 4x 1 1 4x 1 4x
x e dx = x e − xe − e dx
4 2 4 4
 
1 2 4x 1 1 4x 1 4x
= xe − xe − e +C
4 2 4 16
1 1 1
= x2 e4x − xe4x + e4x + C.
4 8 32

Try: Using integration by parts, evaluate

xe−x dx
R R
1. xln|x|dx 3.
R
2. ln|x|dx

2.5 Problems Involving Constant of Integration

The result of integrating a function includes a constant of unknown value. We can find the
value of this constant when further information is provided.

Example: The gradient function for a curve is f (x) = 3x2 + 8x − 1. The curve passes
through the point (−2, 20). Determine the equation of the curve.

Working: Let the equation of the curve be y = g(x). If f (x) = 3x2 + 8x − 1 is its
dy
gradient, then dx = 3x2 + 8x − 1. Thus

3x2+1 8x1+1
Z
 2
− x + C = x3 + 4x2 − x + C.

y= 3x + 8x − 1 dx = +
2+1 1+1
The curve y = g(x) passes through the point (−2, 20). Here x = −2 and y = 20. Thus

20 = (−2)3 + 4(−2)2 − (−2) + C

⇒20 = −8 + 16 + 2 + C
⇒20 = 10 + C
⇒C = 10.

Then the curve is y = x3 + 4x2 − x + 10.

9
 Try:

dy
1. A curve f (x) passes through the point (2, −5) and satisfies dx
= 6x2 − 1. Determine
f (x).
30
2. A tree is growing such that after t years its height is incraesing at a rate of √
3
t
centimetres per year. When t = 0 the height is 5 cm.

(a) Determine the height (to the nearest centimetre) of the tree after 4 years.
(b) After how many years will the height be 4.1 metres?

3 Definite Integrals

The area of a plane figure is very easy to determine. For example, the area of a rectangle is
obtained by multiplying the length and the width. The area of a triangle is given by half the
base times the height.

Areas bounded by curved lines are difficult to obtain. The area of a figure is quantified by
asking ’how many units of area would be needed to cover it?’ Suppose we are given a positive
function f (x) and we want to find the area enclosed between the curve y = f (x), the x-axis
and the lines x = a and x = b (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Region between y = f (x), x-axis, x = a, and x = b.

Assume that the graph of y = f (x) is not a straight line. We can approximate the area. We
will divide the area up into strips by dividing the interval from a to b into n equal subintervals
(each with length ∆x), and we draw vertical lines at these points (Figure 4).

10
 Figure 4: Region between y = f (x), x-axis, x = a, and x = b divided into n regions.

We can choose the least value of f (x) in each subinterval and construct a rectangle with the
chosen f (x) as its height- the width is ∆x. The sum of the areas of these rectangles is clearly
less than the area of the region of interest (denote this area by A). This sum is called a lower
sum (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Approximate area of region using lower sum.

′
Suppose the least value of f (x) in the ith subinterval is f (xi ). Then the area (lower sum) is

n
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
X
f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + f (x3 )∆x + ... + f (xn )∆x = f (xi )∆x.
i=1

n
P ′
We said f (xi )∆x < A.
i=1

We can also choose the greatest value of f (x) in each subinterval and construct a rectangle
with that as its height- the width is ∆x. The sum of the areas of these rectangles is clearly
greater than the area of the region of interest. This sum is called an upper sum (Figure 6).

11
 Figure 6: Approximate area of region using upper sum.

Suppose the greatest value of f (x) in the ith subinterval is f (x∗i ). The upper sum is

n
X
f (x∗1 )∆x + f (x∗2 )∆x + f (x∗3 )∆x + ... + f (x∗n )∆x = f (x∗i )∆x.
i=1

n
f (x∗i )∆x.
P
We said A <
i=1

The area of the region of interest lies between the lower sum and the upper sum.

n n
′
X X
f (xi )∆x < A < f (x∗i )∆x.
i=1 i=1

The area is equal to the limit of the lower sum or the upper sum as the number of subdivisions
tends to infinity.

n n
′
X X
A = lim f (xi )∆x, or A = lim f (x∗i )∆x.
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1

Thus in short the area is given by

n
X
A = lim f (xi )∆x.
n→∞
i=1

Here the interval [a, b] has been divided up into n equal subintervals each of width ∆x and
where xi is a point in the ith subinterval.

12
The expression we have considered for area is very clumsy. Mathematicians have developed
a simpler notation for such expressions. This is denoted by

Zb
f (x)dx
a

Despite using the area under a curve as the motivation, a definite integral is not defined to
Pn
be the area under a curve but simply the limit of the sums of the form lim f (xi )∆x. The
n→∞ i=1
restriction that f (x) be a positive function is NOT necessary for the definition of definite
integral.

The definition can be made more general, by removing the requirement that all the subinter-
vals have to be of equal widths, but we shall not bother with such generalisations here. Sums
Pn
such as lim f (xi )∆x are called Riemann sums after the mathematician Georg Riemann
n→∞ i=1
who first gave a definition of the definite integral. The definition of a definite integral requires
that f (x) should be defined everywhere in the interval [a, b]. Thus f (x) is supposed to be
continuous in the interval [a, b] for the Riemann sum to exist.

Note that

Zb
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

This is a fundamental theorem of calculus. F (b) − F (a) can also be written as F (x)|ba or
[F (x)]ba . This tells us how to evaluate a definite integral.

• First, find an anti-derivative of the function.

• Then, substitute the upper and lower boundaries of interval of integration into the
anti-derivative, then subtract value of anti-derivative at lower boundary from value of
anti-derivative at upper boundary.

x 
d
R
Note also that dx
f (x)dx = f (x).
a

Example: Let us calculate the value of

Z3
3x2 dx.
1

13
 Working

3x2+1
An anti-derivative of 3x2 is 2+1
= x3 . Thus

Z3
 3    
3x2 dx = x3 1 = 33 − 13 = 26.
1

Example: Let us evaluate the integral below.

Z2
2(2x − 1)2 dx
0.5

Working

We can use reduction to simple form. If we use substitution we may need to change
the boundaries of the interval of integration, so that everything is in terms of the new
variable- if we choose not to change the boundaries of the interval of integration, after
getting the anti-derivative in terms of the new variable we will need to rewrite it in terms
of the original variable then we proceed. Let u = 2x − 1. Then du dx
= 2. Thus du = 2dx.

Let us change the boundaries of the interval of integration. We have u = 2x − 1. When

x = 0.5, u = 2(0.5) − 1 = 0 (lower boundary); also when x = 2, u = 2(2) − 1 = 3 (upper
boundary).

Thus
Z2 Z2 Z3 3
u3 33
    3
2 2 2 0
2(2x − 1) dx = (2x − 1) 2dx = u du = = − = 9.
3 0 3 3
0.5 0.5 0

Some of the properties of definite integrals are below.

Ra
• f (x)dx = 0.
a

Rc Rb Rc
• If a≤b≤c, then f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
a a b

Rb Rb
• cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx.
a a

14
 Rb Rb Rb
• [f (x)±g(x)]dx = f (x)dx± g(x)dx.
a a a

Rb Rb
• If f (x)≤g(x) in [a, b], then f (x)dx≤ g(x)dx.
a a

Rb
• cdx = c(b − a).
a

Rb Ra
• f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
a b

Example: Let us evaluate the integral below.

Z2
 3 
8x − 2x + 5 dx
1

Working:

We have
Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2
3
   3
8x − 2x + 5 dx = 8x dx − [2x] dx + [5]dx
1 1 1 1
 4
2  2
2
8x 2x
= + [5x]21
−
14 2 1
4 4
= 2(2) − 2(1) − (2)2 − (1)2 + [5(2) − 5(1)]
  

= 32.

Example: We will evaluate

Z1
xex dx.
0

Working: Let u = x and dv = ex dx. Differentiating u = x with respect to x gives

du
dx
= 1, which is the same as du = dx.
Integrating dv = ex dx gives v = ex .

15
 R R
Then using udv = uv − vdu we have

Z1 Z1
xex dx = [xex ]10 − ex dx = [xex − ex ]10
0 0
= 1.e − e − 0.e0 − e0 = 1.
 1 1
  

Try: Evaluate the following integrals:

R4 R3 h i
1. [2x + 8 − x2 ] dx. 3. √2πx dx.
x2 +4
−2 0

R1 R2
2. [1 − 2x − x2 ] dx. 4. x3 ln|x|dx.
0 1

4 Summary

In this unit we have looked at the reverse of differentiation, integration. We have looked at
indefinite integration, techniques of integration, and definite integration.

Try:

1. Evaluate the integrals below.

1
R R  
(a) [3x2 + 2x + 10] dx (d) z 2 5z − z4
dz
R h 4y6 −y2 i
[3x2 − x−2 ] dx
R
(b) y5
dy (e)
R R 20
(c) [6x5 + 3x2 ] dx (f) 2y[y 2 + 100] dy.

2. Determine the value of each integral below.

16
 R1 R1
(a) 0
[3x2 + 2x] dx (e) 0
y 2 ey dy
R3
(b) −1
[4x3 + 2x] dx
R 3 ey −e−y
(c)
R1 4
[5r + 2r] dr (f) 0 ey +e−y
dy
0
R4 y
(d) √
0 y+1
dy Hint: let u = ey + e−y .

3. Determine the value of the integral below.

Z 2
10
4x 2x2 − 1 dx.

1

4. The gradient of a tangent to a curve is 4x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 4. The curve passes through
the point (1, 1). Determine the equation of the curve.

17