Module 3

Title: Direct Current Generator

Title of the Lesson: Losses, Efficiency and Parallel Generators
Duration: 4 hrs
Introduction:
In the previous modules we learned about the types and applications of different
Dc generators. Generators convert mechanical power (input power) into electrical
power (output power). The total input power cannot be transformed into the output
power in a real machine because there are some losses that take place within the
machine. The ratio of output power to input power which is the efficiency (η), is always
less than 1 (or 100 %). Of course if we are the designer, we will try to make η as great
as possible. The normal efficiency of a rotating d.c machine is about 80 % to 85 %.
Therefore it is important to identify the losses that makes the efficiency lower. In this
module we shall first identify the losses and then try to estimate them to get an idea of
efficiency of a given d.c machine.
Parallel operation of Dc generator is also tackled in this module, the advantages
of connecting generators in parallel and the load sharing of each generator for the
continuous power supply.
So what are you waiting for? Set aside other task that may disturb you while doing this
module. Read and understand the lesson carefully. Analyzed the sample problems
and answer all the activities including the self-evaluation test to gauge how well you
understand the lesson. For problem solving, read the problem carefully, write down
what are the given and the unknown, draw the circuit and analyze, formulate the
equation that fits with the unknown so that you can check what is missing based on
the given, solve the problem step by step until you reach the final answer.

Objectives
1. Describe the method of determining the efficiency of dc generator
2. Know the importance of paralleling dc generators.
3. To know what are the various power losses which take place in a d.c machine.
4. To understand the factors on which various losses depend upon.
5. To know how to calculate efficiency.
6. To understand the importance of paralleling DC generators
7. To know how the generator share the load in proportion to their kilowatt
capacity.

Pretest:
1. What are the losses of a dc generator?
2. What is the effect of those losses in the efficiency of a generator?
3. How do you calculate the efficiency of the generator?
4. What are the importance of connecting the generators in parallel?
5. What are the conditions in paralleling dc generators?

53
 I. Losses of a DC Generator

Remember that “Energy neither can be created nor it can be destroyed, it can only
be transferred from one form to another”. In DC machine, mechanical energy is
converted into the electrical energy. During this process, the total input power is not
transformed into output power. Some part of input power gets wasted in various forms.
The form of this loss may vary from one machine to another. These losses give in the
rise in temperature of the machine and reduce the efficiency of the machine. In DC
Machine, there are broadly four main categories of energy loss.
https://www.electrical4u.com/losses-in-dc-machine/

The various losses occurring in a generator can be sub-divided as follows:

A. Copper Losses
2
A.1 Armature Copper Loss = I a R (not EgIa)

Where Ra = resistance of the armature, interpoles and series field winding, etc.

This loss is about 30 to 40% of full-load losses.

A.2 Field Copper Loss

In the case of the shunt generators, it is practically constant and = If 2Rf = IfVf. In
the case of series generator, it is = Is2Rs where Rs is resistance of series field winding.
This loss is about 20 to 30% of full-load losses, but practically it is constant.
A.3 The loss due to brush contact resistance. It is usually included in the
armature copper loss.
B. Magnetic losses (also known as iron or core losses)
As iron core of the armature is rotating in magnetic field, some losses occurs in
the core which is called core losses. Normally, machines are operated with constant
speed, so these losses are almost constant. These losses are categorized in two form;
Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss.
B.1 Hysteresis Loss (WH )

This loss is due to reversal of magnetization of the armature core. Every portion
of the rotating core passes under N and S pole alternately, thereby attaining S and N
polarity respectively. The core undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal
after passing one pair of poles. If P in the no. of poles and N is the armature speed in
rpm, then frequency of magnetic reversals is;

PN
f =
120

54
 The loss depends upon the volume and grade of iron, maximum value of flux
density βmax and frequency of magnetic reversals. For normal flux densities (i.e. up to
1.5 Wb/m2) hysteresis loss is given by Steinmetz formula.

WH = η βmax1.6 f V watt

Where:
V = volume of the core in m3
η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
Value of η for:
Good dynamo sheet steel = 502 J/m3
Silicon steel = 191 J/m 3
Hard Cast steel = 7040 J/m 3
Cast Steel = 750 – 3000 J/m3
Cast iron = 2700 – 4000 J/m3

B.2 Eddy current loss (WC)

When armature core rotates, it also cuts the magnetic flux. Hence an emf is
induced in the body of the core according to the laws of electromagnetic induction.
This emf though small, sets up large current in the body of the core due to its small
resistance. This current is known as eddy current loss. This loss would be
considerable if solid iron core were used. In order to reduce this loss and the
consequent heating of the core to a small value, the core is built up of thin laminations,
which are stacked and then riveted at right angles to the path of the eddy current.
These core laminations are insulated from each other by a thin coating varnish. .Due
to the core body being one continuous solid iron piece, the magnitude of eddy current
is large. As the armature cross sectional area is large, its resistance is very small,
hence eddy current loss is large. In Fig. (b), the same core has been split up into thin
circular disc insulated from each other. It is seen that now each current path, being of
much less cross section, has very high resistance. Hence, magnitude of eddy current
is reduced considerably thereby drastically reducing eddy current loss.
It is found that eddy current loss Wc is given by the following relation:
1
WE = K max f 2 t 2V
2 2
watt

Where:
βmax = max flux density
t = thickness of each lamination

55
f = frequency of magnetic reversals
V = volume of armature core

These iron losses if allowed to take place unchecked not only reduce the
efficiency of the generator but also raise the temperature of the core. As the output of
the machine is limited in most cases by temperature rise, these losses have to be kept
as small as economically as possible.
Eddy current loss is reduced by using laminated core, but hysteresis loss cannot be
reduced this way. For reducing hysteresis loss, those metal are chosen for the
armature core which have a low hysteresis coefficient. Generally, special silicon such
as stalloy are used which not only have a low hysteresis coefficient but which also
possess high electrical resistivity.

Problem 1]

In a dc machine the total iron loss is 8kW at its rated speed and excitation. If
excitation remains the same, but the speed is reduced by 25%, the total iron loss is
found to be 5kW. Calculate the hysteresis and eddy current losses at:

a) full speed
b) half the rated speed

Since W H f and W e f 2

Also the frequency of reversal of magnetization is directly proportional to the armature

speed.

W H N and W e N 2

Where A and B are constants

Total loss WT =WH +We

=AN+BN
2

Let the full rated speed be 1

8 = 𝐴 × 1 + 𝐵 × (1)2 → (1)

8= 𝐴+𝐵

Now when speed is 75% at full rated speed

Then:

56
 =
5A
0.
75+
13(
0.
75)→
(
2) 2

Multiply ➀ by 0.75 and subtracting from ➁ we get:

6 = 0.75𝐴 + 0.75𝐵

5 = 0.75𝐴 + 0.562𝐵

1 = 0.1875𝐵

𝐵 = 5.333𝑘𝑊

Substitute to equation (1)

A=8−5.333
A=2.667
KW

(a) WH at rated speed =2.67KW

We at rated speed = 5.33Kw

(b) WH at half the rated speed =

2 
.67
0 =
.51.335
KW

We at half the rated speed =

5.
33(
0
.
5)=
1.
3325
KW
2

These losses are practically constant for shunt and compound-wound generators,
because in their case, field current is approximately constant. Both these loses total
up to about 20 to 30% of FL losses

C. Mechanical Losses
The losses associated with mechanical friction of the machine are called
mechanical losses. These losses occur due to friction in the moving parts of the
machine like bearing, brushes etc, and windage losses occur due to the air inside the
rotating coil of the machine. These losses are usually very small about 15% of full load
loss.

These consist of:

C.1 Friction loss at bearings and commutator
C.2 air-friction or windage loss of rotating armature

57
 These are about 10 to 20% of FL losses

Total Losses of DC Generator are summarized below

Source:https://in.pinterest.com/pin/510877151476836396/

D. Stray Load Losses

There are some more losses other than the losses which have been discussed
above. These losses are called stray-load losses. These miscellaneous losses are due
to the short-circuit current in the coil undergoing commutation, distortion of flux due to
the armature and many more losses which are difficult to find. These losses are difficult
to determine. However, they are taken as 1% of the whole load power output.
https://www.electrical4u.com/losses-in-dc-machine/

Constant or Standing Losses

As said above, field copper loss is constant for shunt and compound
generators. Hence, stray losses and shunt copper loss are constant in their case.
These losses are together known as standing or constant losses (We)
For shunt and compound generator

Total Loss = Ia2Ra + Wc

= Ia2Ra + I f2 2R f + SPL

Armature Copper Loss is known as variable loss, because it varies with the load
current.
Total Loss = Variable Loss + Constant Loss

𝑊𝑇 = 𝑊𝑉 + 𝑊𝐶

58
Where:
WT = total losses

Wv = variable losses
Wc = constant losses
SPL = stray power losses

II Power Stages of a DC Generator

Various power stages in the case of a dc generator

Fig 1.37

A. Generator Efficiencies
Following are the three generator efficiencies:
1. Mechanical Efficiency

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑚 = = × 100
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑛

2. Electrical Efficiency

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒 = = × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎

3. Overall or Commercial Efficiency

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑃𝑜

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑐 = = ×1
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑛
It is obvious that overall efficiency;
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑐 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑚 × 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒

59
For good generator its value may be as high as 95%

Note: Unless specified otherwise, commercial efficiency is always to be understood.

B. Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Generator output = 𝑉𝑡 𝐼𝐿

Generator input = output + losses

Generator efficiency is maximum when;

Variable loss = Constant loss

Problem 2]
A shunt generator supplies 195 amperes at 220V. Armature resistances 0.02Ω,
shunt field resistance 44 Ω. If the iron and friction losses amount to 1600 w, find;
(a) EMF generated
(b) Copper losses

(c) Commercial, Mechanical and Electrical Efficiencies

(d) BHP of the engine
Given:
I L = 195 A
V t = 220 V
R a = 0 . 02 
R f = 44 
I & F = 1600 W
Solution:

g=
E t+
V Ia(R
a)

(a) Ia= +
1955=200
A
Eg= +
220 (0
200 )=224
.02 V

Ia Ra =(200
) (0.02
)=800
2 2
w
If Rf =(5) (44
)=1,100
2 2
w
(b)
Cut =800
+1,100
=1,900
w

60
 42 ,900
c = 100=92.46
%
46 ,400
42 ,900
(c) e = 100
=95 .76
%
(224 )(200)
m =
(224 )(200)100=96.55%
46 ,400

(d) BHP of the engine = Pin

Pin = Po +total losses

P()
=
in ()
+
195
220+=
1900
1600
62
.
198
Hp

Self-Evaluation Test
1. What are the losses in dc generators?
2. What is the condition for maximum efficiency?
3. What is the meaning of variable loss, constant loss, and stray power loss?
4. Write the formula for determining mechanical efficiency, electrical efficiency,
and commercial efficiency for dc generator.

III Parallel Operation of DC Generators

A. Advantages of Parallel Operation of Dc Generator

Power plant whether DC or AC stations, will be generally found to have several

smaller generators running in parallel rather than large single units capable of
supplying the maximum peak load. These smaller units can be run singly or in various
parallel combinations to suit the actual load demand. Such practice is considered
extremely desirable for the following reasons:

1) Continuity of Service
If a single large generator is used in the power plant, then in case of
its breakdown, the whole plant will be shut down. However, if power is supplied from
a number of small units operating in parallel, then in case of failure of one unit, the
continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units.
2) Efficiency

Usually the load on the electrical power plant fluctuate its peal value sometimes
during the day and its minimum value during the late night hours. Since generators
operate most efficient when delivering full load, it is economical to use a single small
unit when the load is light. Then, as the load demand increases, a large generator can
be substituted for the smaller one or another smaller unit can be connected to run in
parallel with one already in operation.
61
3) Maintenance and Repair

It is considered a good practice to inspect generators carefully and periodically

to forestall any possibility of failure or breakdown. This is possible only when the
generator is at rest which means that there must be other generators to take care of
the load. Moreover, when the generators does actually breakdown, it can be repaired
with more care and not in rush, provided there are other generators available to
maintain service.

4) Increasing Plant Capacity

In the modern world of increasing population, the use of electricity is
continuously increasing. When added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply
paralleled with the old units. In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity
may not be available. In that case, a number of smaller units can be operated in
parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally, a single large unit is more expensive.

B. Conditions for Parallel Operation of Dc Generator :

To connect the generators in parallel to common bus-bars, the generators should
satisfy the following conditions.

1. The incoming generators voltage should be same as bus-bar voltage.

2. The +ve and -ve terminals ( i.e. polarity ) of generators must be connected to +ve
and -ve of bus-bars ( otherwise a serious short-circuit will occur ).

3. Equalizer bar should be used for compound and series generators.

4. Induced e.m.fs of generators should be preferably same (otherwise circulating

currents result ).

C. Connection of Parallel DC Generators

1. The generators in a power plant, connected by heavy thick copper bars, called
bus-bars which act as positive and negative terminals. To connect the
generators in parallel, Positive terminal of the generators are connected to the
positive terminal of the bus-bars and negative terminals of generators are
connected to negative terminal of the bus-bars, as shown in the figure.
Moreover, paralleling a generator with reverse polarity effectively short
circuits it and results in damaged brushes, a damaged commutator and a
blocked-out power plant. Generators that have been tripped off the bus –
because of a heavy fault current should always be checked for reverse polarity
before paralleling.
2. To connect the 2 generator with the 1 existing working generators, first we have
to bring the speed of the prime mover of the 2 generator to the rated speed. At
this point switch S4 is closed.

62
 3. The circuit breaker V2 (voltmeter) connected across the open switch S2 is
closed to complete the circuit. The excitation of the generator 2 is increased
with the help of field rheostat till it generates voltage equal to the voltage of bus-
bars.
4. The main switch S2 is then closed and the generator 2 is ready to be paralleled
with existing generator. But at this point of time generator 2 is not taking any
load as its induced e.m.f. is equal to bus-bar voltage. The present condition is
called floating, that means ready for supply but not supplying current to the load.
5. In order to deliver current from generator 2, it is necessary that its induced e.m.f.
E should be greater than the bus-bars voltage V. By strengthening the field
current, the induced e.m.f. of generator 2 could be improved and the current
supply will get started. To maintain bus-bar voltage, the field of generator 1 is
weakened so that value remains constant.

𝐸−𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅𝑎
Field current I given by where, Ra is resistance of armature winding.

Fig. 1.38

D. Parallel Operation of Shunt DC Generator

There may be two conditions for parallel operation of shunt DC generators.

Condition 1
The no-load voltage of the generators to be operated in parallel is the same.

Condition 2
The no-load voltage of the generators to be operated in parallel is unequal.

D.1 No Load Voltage of Parallel Generators is the Same

Let us consider E is the no-load voltage of DC generator 1 and 2 as shown in the

figure below.

63
V is the voltage of the bus to which we will connect the DC generators. Also, we
consider the armature resistance of Generator 1 and 2 are R1 and R2 respectively. The
load delivered by generator 1 and generator 2 are,

From these two equations, we can write,

Here, I1 is the load current delivered by generator 1 and I 2 is the load current
delivered by generator 2.
From the above expressions we can conclude that when the no load voltage or
open circuit voltage of generators in parallel is same, the current delivered by the
individual generator is inversely proportional to the armature resistance of that
generator.

D.2 No Load Voltage of Parallel Generators is not the Same

Now, we come to the 2nd condition where two generators are being operated
in parallel with unequal no load voltage.

64
 In that case, let us consider E1 and E2 are the open circuit or no load voltage of
generator 1 and 2 respectively. Now we can write,

Now, by making ratio of I1 and I2 we get,

Again we know that, the no load voltage of a DC generator is directly

proportional to the field flux and speed of the prime mover. So, we can write,

Where, Φ1 and N1 are the field flux and RPM of generator 1. Now, we can write,

Where, K1 is the proportionality constant.

Similarly, we can establish that the no load voltage of generator 2,

65
 Placing the expression of E1 and E2 in the expression of armature currents or
load currents, we get, the ratio of load currents as

Therefore from the above equation it is clear to us that by controlling the field
excitation (Φ) and speed of the prime mover (N), we can control the load sharing by
these two generators on the system. Whatever maybe the value of field flux or RPM
of the generator but it is true that during parallel operation of DC shunt generators, the
voltage drop across the armature would be such that it will cause same terminal
voltage for both the generators when running with loads. This online terminal voltage
will be exactly equal to the voltage of the bus to which we connect the generator.

E. Load Sharing
The load sharing between shunt generators in parallel can be easily regulated
because of their drooping characteristics. The load may be shifted from one generator
to another merely by adjusting the field excitation.

Let us discuss the load sharing of two generators which have unequal no-load
voltages.
Let E1, E2 = no-load voltages of the two generators

R1, R2 = their armature resistances

V = common terminal voltage (Bus-bars voltage).

Then I 1 = E1 − V R and I 2 = E 2 − V R
1 2

I 1 E 2 − VR1
=
I 2 E1 − VR2

K 2 N 2  2 − V R1
= 
K1 N11 − V R2

From the above equation, it is clear that bus bar voltage can be kept constant
(and load can be transferred from 1 to 2) by increasing Ө2 or N2 or by reducing N1 and
Ө1. N2 and N1 are changed by changing the speed of driving engines and Ө1 and Ө2
are changed with the help of regulating shunt field resistances.

66
It should be kept in mind that:

(1) two parallel shunt generators having equal no-load voltages share the load in
such a ration that the load current of each machine produces the same drop in
each generator.
(2) In the case of two shunt generators having unequal no-load voltages, the load
currents produce sufficient voltage drop in each so as to keep their terminal
voltage the same.
(3) The generator with the different power ratings but the same voltage regulation
will divide any oncoming bus load in direct proportion to their respective power
ratings.

F. Compound Generators in Parallel

Let us see the parallel operation with dc compound generators. Here the
generators are taking an equal share of the load.

Let the two compound generators G1and G2 are connected for parallel operation
as shown in the figure. Consider, for instance, the generator G1 takes increased
sharing of the load. Due to this, the current through the series winding of that generator
G1 increases further. Therefore the emf in the generator also increases, which makes
the generator to take more load.

As the load on the two generators is to be constant. It may result in the weakening
of the series field of the generator G2. Which in turn further reduces the load on
generator G2.

It this condition may continue, at a time generator G1 takes the entire load, and at
that instant, the generator G2 will start working as a motor. This may result in the
opening of the circuit breakers of the generator and the entire parallel operation will
be stopped.

67
 In order to make the parallel operation, stable and smooth. A conductor of low
resistance known as “Equalizer Bar " is connected between the two armature ends of
two generators as shown in the figure. The operation of the equalizing bar is to make
an equal flow of field currents in two generators series field coils.

Suppose when the current through the winding of generator G1 increases. Due to
the sharing of load increases. This current also passes through the equalizing bar.
Therefore, this current will be shared by the series field winding of the generator G2.
In this way the current is balanced in both the windings of the generators with the help
of an equalizing bar and load sharing is made equal on both generators.

G. Parallel Operation of Series Generator

Two identical series generator G1 and G2 are connected in parallel. Let E1 and
E2 are initially equal, generators supply equal currents and have equal shunt
resistances. When E1 increases slightly ( E1 > E2 ). In that case, I1 becomes greater
than I2.

Consequently, the field through generator G1 is strengthened thus

increasing E1 further whist the field of generator G2 is weakened thus decreasing
E2 further. At a stage when G1 supplies power not only to the whole load but also
supplies power to G2 which starts running as a motor. Here, the two machines will form
a short-circuited loop and the current will rise in the loop.

68
 This condition can be prevented by placing an equalizing bar between two
generators because of which two machines passes similarly equal currents to the load,
the slight difference between the two currents are adjusted in the loop is made by the
armatures and the equalizer bar.

Self-Evaluation Test
(1) What are the reasons for paralleling dc generators?
(2) What will happen to the series generators connected in parallel without
equalizer?
(3) How does parallel generator share their load to other generators?
(4) What is the effect of connecting generator in parallel with reverse polarity?
(5) Enumerate the procedure for connecting dc generators in parallel.

The Assignment/Course Requirement Guide will give the student a clear direction
upon his/her completion for the listed learning activities that can be found in each of
the provided modules or study guides. Aside from the instructions provided, this
course requirement guide will intend to specify the rubrics on grading the activities and
also the guidelines for both the schedule and means of submission if in case the
student will not be able to submit his/her assignment via online platforms.

RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT:

For Problem Solving Type Item in a Quiz, assignment or Examination:

69
Criteria Point(s)
per Item Ratin
(Weight 15 10 5 3 0 g
)

Given Complet Incomplet No

and e given e given given
Unknow and and and
n in the unknown unknown unknow
problem n

Circuit Complet Circuit No

diagram e circuit only circuit
of the diagram/ w/out
problem with label
complete
lavel

Written Correct Correct

Solution Answer Answer Wrong Wrong No
and with with Answer Answer Answer
Answer Correct Correct but with and and No
to Solution Solution Correct Wrong Solutio
Problem and but no Solution Solution n
units(s) units(s)

Total Point (for 1 Item) 25

Guidelines for Submission and Evaluation

1. For those students who choose either synchronous (SL) or asynchronous
online learning (AOL) as the mode of learning that is suited for them, all
activities must be submitted online (Google Classroom, Google Mail, or
Messenger). Otherwise if the student prefers for remote print learning mode
(RPL), the instructor will give two (2) weeks for them to accomplish and
submit a printed/hand-written copy of their output.
2. Feedback for the submitted outputs will be through e-mail (for SL or AOL)
or will be returned on the students directly in the next schedule of
submission (applicable for RPL).
3. Submission and return (for RPL) of materials may be located outside the
gate of the University or in the designated area of the LGU in the student’s
municipality.

70
Module Summary:
1. The various losses occurring in a generator are copper losses, magnetic losses,
mechanical losses and stray load loss.
2
2. Armature Copper Loss = I a R (not EgIa)
3. Hysteresis loss is given by Steinmetz formula. WH = η βmax1.6 f V watt
1
WE = K max f 2 t 2V
2 2
watt
4. Eddy current loss Wc is given by the following relation:

5. Eddy current loss is reduced by using laminated core, but hysteresis loss is
reduced by choosing , those metal for the armature core which have a low
hysteresis coefficient.

6. Mechanical loss consist of friction loss at bearings and commutator and air-
friction or windage loss of rotating armature
7. Stray load loss are miscellaneous losses due to the short-circuit current in the
coil undergoing commutation, distortion of flux due to the armature and many
more losses which are difficult to find.
8. Constant or Standing Losses consist of field copper loss for shunt and
compound generators. Hence, stray losses and shunt copper loss are constant
in their case.
9. Armature Copper Loss is known as variable loss, because it varies with the load
current.
10. Generator efficiencies are mechanical efficiency, electrical efficiency and
overall or conventional efficiency.
11. The condition for maximum efficiency is that variable loss is equal to constant
loss.
12. Parallel operation of generators is considered extremely desirable for due to
the following reasons: Continuity of service, efficiency, maintenance and repair
and increasing plant capacity.
13. Parallel generators share a load in proportion to their kilowatt capacity.
14. In order to make the parallel operation, stable and smooth for compound and
series generators, equalizer bar " is connected between the two armature ends
of two generators.

References:

Fundamentals of Electrical Machines, (2012, January 30) M.A. Salam, Alpha

Science International Ltd. Oxford U.K., Salam/dp/1842657046
Electrical Machines and Automatic Controller . , Technical Publications., 2014
Electrical Machines., S.K. Bhattacharya, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited
Electric Machinery., P. F. Ryff., Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
Electric Machinery; S.D. Umans., McGraw-Hill Inc., 2014
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