CHAPTER 4

Special casting processes:

Special casting processes: Expendable mold casting processes like- Sand mold,

Shell, Expendable pattern, Plaster, Ceramic, and Investment casting processes. Permanent mold
casting Processes like- Slush, Pressure, Die casing, Centrifugal, Squeeze and Semisolid metal
forming

 Casting process is one of the earliest metal shaping techniques known to human being.
 It means pouring molten metal into a refractory mold cavity and allows it to solidify.
 The solidified object is taken out from the mold either by breaking or taking the mold apart.
 The solidified object is called casting and the technique followed in method is known as
casting process.

Categories of casting processes

4.1. Expendable-mold casting:

• Mold (made of sand, plaster, or similar materials, whose form is maintained by using binders)
in which the molten metal solidifies must be destroyed in order to remove the casting.
• Example: Sand casting

4.1.1 Sand casting

 The most widely used casting process.

 Nearly all casting alloys can be sand cast.
 It can be used for metals with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium.
 Its versatility permits the casting of parts ranging in size from small to very large and in
production quantities from one to millions.
 It is also known as sand-mold casting.
 Fig. 4.1 Outline of production steps in a typical sand casting operation

 Mould making is a very skilled operation.

 We shall describe, step by step, the procedure for making a mould for a split pattern.
1. Place bottom half of the split pattern on a flat molding board, with the parting surface face
downwards.
2. Coating the pattern with a material such as graphite powder, kerosene or paraffin which
prevents the sand from sticking to the pattern.
3. Spread facing sand to cover all parts of the pattern up to a depth of 20–25 mm. Facing sand is
freshly prepared molding sand. Fill up the remaining space left in the molding box with
backing sand. Backing sand is prepared by reconditioning the previously used foundry sand
which is always available on the foundry floor. Use of backing sand reduces the requirement
of facing sand, which is quite costly.
4. The sand in the molding box is rammed (pressed) with a special tool.
5. Removing the excess sand and placing the vents using a venting tool (it is a long thick
needle), make venting holes in the sand taking care that they are not so deep as to touch the
pattern.
6. Turning over and lifting the pattern. This molding box will form lower box, and is called
“drag”.
7. Repeat operations (1) to (6) for the second half-mould (cope). Place two taper pins at suitable
places, where runner and riser are to be located. Full up the box with backing sand, pack in
sand with ramming tool, level sand and make venting holes.
8. In the drag box, a gate is cut below the location of the runner (in the cope box). The molten
metal poured in the runner will flow through the gate into the mould cavity.
9. In case, any cores are used to make holes in the casting, this is time for placing the cores in
the mould cavity.
10. Blowing the mould cavity and gating system with compressed air, assembly of the two half-
moulds, and clamping. Now the mould is ready for pouring molten metal.

Fig. 4.2 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting

4.1.2 Other Expendable-Mold Casting Processes

As versatile as sand casting is, there are other casting processes that have been developed to meet
special needs. The differences between these methods are in the composition of the mold
material, or the manner in which the mold is made, or in the way the pattern is made.
4.1.2.1 Shell molding
 Shell molding is a casting process in which the mold is a thin shell (typically 9 mm) made of
sand held together by a thermosetting resin binder.
 The surface of the shell mold cavity is smoother than a conventional green-sand mold, and
this smoothness permits easier flow of molten metal during pouring and better surface finish
on the final casting.
 Surface finish of 2.5 µm can be obtained.
 Good dimensional accuracy is also achieved, with tolerances of ±0.25 mm possible on small
to-medium-sized parts.
 The good finish and accuracy often precludes the need for further machining.
 Collapsibility of the mold is generally sufficient to avoid tearing and cracking of the casting

Disadvantages of shell molding include a more expensive metal pattern than the corresponding
pattern for green-sand molding.

 Shell molding can be mechanized for mass production and is very economical for large
quantities.
 Examples of parts made using shell molding include gears, valve bodies, bushings, and
camshafts.

Steps in shell molding

1. A match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing
Sand mixed with thermosetting resin;
2. Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture
to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell;
3. Box is repositioned so that loose, uncured particles drop away;
4. Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing;
5. Shell mold is stripped from the pattern;
6. Two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished;
7. The finished casting with sprue removed.
 Fig. 4.3 steps in Shell molding
4.3.4 Investment casting
 In investment casting, a pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make the
mold, after which the wax is melted away prior to pouring the molten metal.
 It is a precision casting process, because it is capable of making castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail.
 It is also known as the lost-wax process, because the wax pattern is lost from the mold prior to
casting.
 Since the wax pattern is melted off after the refractory mold is made, a separate pattern must
be made for every casting.
 Pattern production is usually accomplished by a molding operation—pouring or injecting the
hot wax into a master die that has been designed with proper allowances for shrinkage of
both wax and subsequent metal casting.
 In cases where the part geometry is complicated, several separate wax pieces must be joined
to make the pattern.
 In high production operations, several patterns are attached to a sprue, also made of wax, to
form a pattern tree; this is the geometry that will be cast out of metal.
 Because many steps are involved in this casting operation, it is a relatively expensive process.
 Investment castings are normally small in size, but parts with complex geometries can be cast.
 All types of metals, including steels, stainless steels, and other high temperature alloys, can be
investment cast.
 Examples of parts include complex machinery parts, blades, and other components for
turbine engines, jewelry, and dental fixtures.

4.3.4.1 Steps in investment casting

1. Wax patterns are produced;

2. Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree;
3. The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material;
4. The full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid;
5. The mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of
the cavity;
6. The mold is preheated to a high temperature, which ensures that all contaminants are
eliminated from the mold; it also permits the liquid metal to flow more easily into the detailed
cavity; the molten metal is poured; it solidifies; and
7. The mold is broken away from the finished casting. Parts are separated from the sprue.
 Fig. 4.4 Steps in Investment casting

4.3.4.2 Advantages of investment casting

1. Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast;

2. Close dimensional control-tolerances of ±0.075 mm are possible;

3. Good surface finish is possible;

4. The wax can usually be recovered for reuse; and

5. Additional machining is not normally required -this is a net shape process.

Plaster-mold casting

 Plaster-mold casting is similar to sand casting except that the mold is made of plaster of Paris
(gypsum-CaSO4-2H2O) instead of sand.
 Additives such as talc and silica flour are mixed with the plaster to control contraction and
setting time, reduce cracking, and increase strength.
 To make the mold, the plaster mixture combined with water is poured over a plastic or metal
pattern in a flask and allowed to set.
 Wood patterns are generally unsatisfactory due to the extended contact with water in the
plaster.
 The fluid consistency permits the plaster mixture to readily flow around the pattern, capturing
its details and surface finish.
 Thus, the cast product in plaster molding is noted for these attributes.
 Plaster molds cannot withstand the same high temperatures as sand molds.
 They are therefore limited to the casting of lower-melting-point alloys, such as aluminum,
magnesium, and some copper-base alloys.
 Applications include metal molds for plastic and rubber molding, pump and turbine impellers,
and other parts of relatively intricate geometry.
 Advantages of plaster molding for these applications are good surface finish and dimensional
accuracy and the capability to make thin cross sections in the casting.
Ceramic-mold casting
 Ceramic-mold casting is similar to plaster-mold casting, except that the mold is made of
refractory ceramic materials that can withstand higher temperatures than plaster.
 Thus, ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other high temperature
alloys.
 Its applications (relatively intricate parts) are similar to those of plaster mold casting except
for the metals cast.
 Its advantages (good accuracy and finish) are also similar.
4.3.6 Permanent-mold casting process
 Permanent-mold casting uses a metal mold constructed of two sections that are designed for
easy, precise opening and closing.
 These molds are commonly made of pearlitic grey cast iron, meehanite (high duty) iron and
steel.
 The cavity, with gating system included, is machined into the two halves to provide accurate
dimensions and good surface finish.
 All metals except steel can be cast, whereas the commonly cast in permanent molds include
aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron.
 The cores can be made of metal, but either their shape must allow for removal from the
casting or they must be mechanically collapsible to permit removal.
 If withdrawal of a metal core would be difficult or impossible, sand cores can be used, in
which case the casting process is often referred to as semi-permanent mold casting.
 In preparation for casting, the mold is first preheated and one or more coatings are sprayed on
the cavity.
 Preheating facilitates metal flow through the gating system and into the cavity.
 The coatings aid heat dissipation and lubricate the mold surfaces for easier separation of the
cast product.
 After pouring, as soon as the metal solidifies, the mold is opened and the casting is removed.
 Permanent molds do not collapse, so the mold must be opened before appreciable cooling
contraction occurs in order to prevent cracks in the casting.

4.3.6.1 Steps of permanent-mold casting process

1. Mold is preheated and coated;

2. Cores (if used) are inserted, and mold is closed;
3. Molten metal is poured into the mold; and
4. Mold is opened.
5. Finished part

Fig. 4.5 Permanent mold casting

4.3.6.2 Advantages and disadvantages of permanent–mold casting process

 Advantages of permanent-mold casting include good surface finish and close dimensional
control.
 In addition, more rapid solidification caused by the metal mold results in a finer grain
structure, so stronger castings are produced.
 The process is generally limited to metals of lower melting points.
 Other limitations include simple part geometries compared to sand casting (because of the
need to open the mold), and the expense of the mold.
 Because mold cost is substantial, the process is best suited to high-volume production and
can be automated accordingly.
 Typical parts include automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and
missiles.

4.3.7 Die casting

 Die casting is a permanent-mold casting process in which the molten metal is injected into the
mold cavity, die is usually made of ally steel, under high pressure.
 It produces a good surface finish and good dimensional accuracy, and also it provides high
volume output but with expensive tooling.
 Die castings highly susceptible to porosity.
 Based on how the molten metal is injected into the cavity, there are two main types of die
casting machines: hot-chamber and cold-chamber.

4.3.7.1 Hot-chamber die casting

4.3.7.1 Steps in hot-chamber die casting

1. With die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber;

2. Plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification; and

3. Plunger is withdrawn, die is opened, and solidified part is ejected.

4. Finished part

Fig. 4.6 Steps in hot-chamber die casting

4.3.7.2 Cold-chamber die casting
4.3.7.2 Steps in cold-chamber die casting
1. With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber;
2. Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification;
and
3. Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is ejected.
 Fig. 4.7 Steps in cold-chamber die casting
4.3.8 Low pressure casting
 In low-pressure casting, the liquid metal is forced into the cavity under low pressure
(approximately 0.1 MPa) from beneath so that the flow is upward.
 The advantage of this approach over traditional pouring is that clean molten metal from the
center of the ladle is introduced into the mold, rather than metal that has been exposed to air.
 Gas porosity and oxidation defects are thereby minimized, and mechanical properties are
improved

Fig. 4.8 Low-pressure casting

4.3.9 Centrifugal casting

 A permanent mold made of metal or ceramic is rotated at high speed (300 to 3000 rpm).
 The molten metal is then poured into the mold cavity and due to centrifugal action the molten
metal conform to the cavity provided in the mould.
 Centrifugal castings: true centrifugal casting, semi centrifugal casting, and centrifuge casting.
 The casting is usually a fine grain casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter, which is
resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.
 Fig. 4.9 Setup for true centrifugal casting
 The inside diameter has more impurities and inclusions, which can be machined away.
 Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.
 Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys
of aluminum, copper and nickel.
 Typical parts made by this process are pipes, boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels, cylinder
liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric.
4.3.10 Squeeze casting
 Squeeze casting process incorporates the advantage of forging or mechanical deformation into
the casting process.
 Molten metal is poured into a die whose half parts are initially separated and then brought
together to squeeze the casting while it solidifies.
 Simultaneously, pressure is applied from a punch in a direction lateral to the movement of the
dies, thereby triggering squeeze action from all directions.
 The pressure is applied on to the molten metal at the precise time when the metal temperature
at the interface of metal and die has reached solidus.
 Delay may necessitate the use of higher pressures, and premature application of pressure may
produce coarse and uneven surfaces and ragged edges.
 Compression time should be such that complete solidification takes place without any air gap.
 After withdrawal from the die, the casting is cooled in hot sand.
 Squeeze casting requires extremely accurate control of a number of variables, such as metal or
alloy to be cast, melt volume, pressures applied, compression temperature of metal,
compression time, die and punch temperature, and type of lubricant used.
 For any given casting and its composition, the correct values of these variables must first be
decided.
 The process has therefore been put to restricted commercial use and laboratory investigations
and research on ways to refine it are still in progress.
 In one case, it has been used to form forging die inserts in low alloy steel.
 The properties achieved have been found comparable to those in a forging.
 Fiber reinforced castings with SiC or Al2O3 fibers intercepted in metal matrix have been
successfully squeeze cast and commercially used to produce automobile pistons.
 Applications:
 Automotive squeeze cast components
 Missile nose cones
 Defence (armours)
 Fabrication of metal matrix composites
 Rail vehicle structural members
 Constructional support members
 Its advantages near net shape process, porosity free, maximum yield, any alloy can be cast,
better mechanical properties, good dimensional accuracy, economic process, potential for
automation, isotropic properties.
 Its disadvantages oxide inclusions, hot tears, over/under filling and high tooling cost.
4.3.10.1 Steps in squeeze casting
 A metered quantity of liquid metal is poured into a pre-heated and well-lubricated die cavity.
 The liquid metal is then pressurized using a suitable punch after a dwell time.
 The pressure is held on the metal until complete solidification takes place.
 The punch is then withdrawn and the casting is ejected out.
 Fig. 4.10 Schematic diagram to show two forms of the direct squeeze casting process.

Semi-solid metal casting

 Semi-solid metal casting is a family of net-shape and near net-shape processes performed on
metal alloys at temperatures between the liquidus and solidus.
 Thus the alloy is a mixture of solid and molten metals during casting, like a slurry; it is in the
mushy state.
 In order to flow properly, the mixture must consist of solid metal globules in a liquid rather
than the more typical dendritic solid shapes that form during freezing of a molten metal.
 This is achieved by forcefully stirring the slurry to prevent dendrite formation and instead
encourage the spherical shapes, which in turn reduces the viscosity of the work metal.
Advantages of semi-solid metal casting include the following:
1. Complex part geometries,
2. Thin walls in parts,
3. Close tolerances,
4. Zero or low porosity, resulting in high strength of the casting.
Slush Casting

 Slush casting is a permanent mold process in which a hollow casting is formed by inverting
the mold after partial freezing at the surface to drain out the liquid metal in the center.
 Solidification begins at the mold walls because they are relatively cool, and it progresses over
time toward the middle of the casting.
 Thickness of the shell is controlled by the length of time allowed before draining. Slush
casting is used to make statues, lamp pedestals, and toys out of low-melting-point metals such
as zinc and tin. In these items, the exterior appearance is important, but the strength and
interior geometry of the casting are minor considerations.