4/11/2024

Chapter 2
Solidification
Processes
Metal Casting
Processes
presented by Dr. Minh Tuan HO
[email protected]
ME2071 – Manufacturing Processes
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METAL CASTING PROCESSES

1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Metals for Casting
7. Product Design Considerations

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Two Categories of
Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to

remove part
▪ Advantage: more complex shapes possible
▪ Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
the time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal
and can be used to make many castings
▪ Advantage: higher production rates
▪ Disadvantage: geometries are limited by the need
to open the mold

Overview of Sand Casting

Sand casting for an industrial pump.

Holes and surfaces have been
machined (courtesy of George E.
Kane Manufacturing Technology
Laboratory, Lehigh University)

▪ Most widely used casting process, accounting for a

significant majority of total tonnage cast
▪ Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with
high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
▪ Castings range in size from small to very large
▪ Production quantities from one to millions

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Sand Casting Production

Sequence

▪ Production sequence in sand casting, including

pattern-making and mold-making

Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold

2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
▪ Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties

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Making the Sand Mold

▪ The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing

sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into
two halves and removing the pattern
▪ The mold must also contain gating and riser system
▪ If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
▪ A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced

The Pattern

▪ Full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to

account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting
▪ Pattern materials:
▪ Wood - common material because it is easy to
work, but it warps
▪ Metal - more expensive to fabricate, but lasts
longer
▪ Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

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Types of Patterns

(a) solid pattern, (b) split pattern,

(c) match-plate pattern, (d) cope and drag pattern

Core

▪ Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part

▪ Inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring
▪ The molten metal flows and solidifies between the
mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
▪ May require supports to hold it in position in the
mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets

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Core in Mold

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets,

(b) possible chaplet design,
(c) casting

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Other Expendable Mold

Processes

▪ Shell Molding
▪ Vacuum Molding
▪ Expanded Polystyrene Process
▪ Investment Casting
▪ Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

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Shell Molding

▪ Casting process in which

the mold is a thin shell
of sand held together
by thermosetting resin
▪ Steps: (1) A metal
pattern is heated and
placed over a box
containing sand mixed
with TS resin

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Steps in Shell Molding

(2) Box is inverted so that sand

and resin fall onto the hot pattern,
causing a layer of the mixture to
partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell

(3) Box is repositioned so loose

uncured particles drop away

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Steps in Shell Molding

(4) Sand shell is heated in oven for

several minutes to complete curing

(5) Shell mold is stripped from pattern

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Steps in Shell Molding

(6) Two halves of the shell mold are

assembled, supported by sand or metal
shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished

(7) Finished casting with sprue removed

(7)

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Shell Molding: Advantages and

Disadvantages

▪ Advantages:
▪ Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
▪ Good dimensional accuracy
▪ Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
▪ Can be mechanized for mass production
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ More expensive metal pattern
▪ Difficult to justify for small quantities

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Vacuum
Molding

▪ Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather

than by a chemical binder
▪ The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather than
casting operation itself
▪ Developed in Japan around 1970
▪ Steps: (1) bottom plastic film is drawn by vacuum
(2) flask, sand, sprue & pouring cup are placed

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Steps in Vacuum Molding

(3) (3) top plastic film is drawn.

(4) the pattern is stripped.

Steps (1)-(4) are repeated to obtain
the other half mold

(5) Cope and Drag are matched,

pouring is accomplished.

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Vacuum Molding: Advantages

and Disadvantages

▪ Advantages:
▪ Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
▪ Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
done when binders are used
▪ Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture-related defects are avoided
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Slow process
▪ Not readily adaptable to mechanization

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Expanded Polystyrene Process

▪ Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene

foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is
poured into mold
▪ Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative-foam process, and full-mold
process
▪ Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
▪ Mold does not have to be opened into cope and
drag sections

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Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process

(1) Polystyrene foam

pattern is coated with
refractory compound

(2) Foam pattern is

placed in mold box, and
sand is compacted
around the pattern

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Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process

▪ (3) Molten metal is poured

into the portion of the
pattern that forms the
pouring cup and sprue
▪ As the metal enters the
mold, the polystyrene
foam is vaporized ahead
of the advancing liquid,
thus filling the mold cavity

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Expanded Polystyrene Process:

Advantages and Disadvantages

▪ Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:

▪ Pattern need not be removed from the mold
▪ Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two
mold halves are not required as in a conventional
green-sand mold
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ A new pattern is needed for every casting
▪ Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns

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Expanded Polystyrene Process

Aluminum engine
head produced by
expanded polystyrene
casting process

▪ Applications:
▪ Mass production of castings for automobile engines
▪ Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are
used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation

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Investment Casting
(a.k.a. Lost Wax Process)

▪ A pattern made of wax is coated with a

refractory material to make the mold,
after which wax is melted away prior to
pouring molten metal
▪ "Investment" comes from a less
familiar definition of "invest" - "to One-piece compressor
cover completely," which refers to stator with 108 separate
coating of refractory material around airfoils made by
investment casting
wax pattern (courtesy of Alcoa
▪ It is a precision casting process Howmet)

▪ Capable of producing castings of

high accuracy and intricate detail

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Steps in Investment Casting

(1) Wax patterns are produced

(2) Several patterns are attached

to a sprue to form a pattern tree

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Steps in Investment Casting

(3) Pattern tree is coated with a

thin layer of refractory material

(4) Full mold is formed by covering

the coated tree with sufficient
refractory material to make it rigid

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Steps in Investment Casting

(5) Mold is held in an inverted

position and heated to melt the wax
and permit it to drip out of the cavity

(6) Mold is preheated to a high

temperature, the molten metal
is poured, and it solidifies

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Steps in Investment Casting

(7) Mold is broken away

from the finished casting
and the parts are
separated from the
sprue

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Investment Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages

▪ Advantages:
▪ Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
▪ Close dimensional control and good surface finish
▪ Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
▪ This is a net shape process - additional machining
is not normally required
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Many processing steps are required
▪ Relatively expensive process

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Plaster Mold Casting

▪ Similar to sand casting except mold is made of

plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
▪ In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is
poured over plastic or metal pattern and allowed
to set
▪ Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
▪ Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish

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Plaster Mold Casting:

Advantages and Disadvantages

▪ Advantages:
▪ Good accuracy and surface finish
▪ Capability to make thin cross sections
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Mold must be baked to remove moisture
▪ Moisture can cause problems in casting
▪ Mold strength is lost if over-baked
▪ Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures
▪ Limited to lower melting point alloys

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Ceramic Mold Casting

▪ Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is

made of refractory ceramic material that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
▪ Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high-temperature alloys
▪ Applications similar to those of plaster mold
casting except for the metals cast
▪ Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also
similar

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Permanent Mold
Casting Processes

▪ Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:

▪ A new mold is required for every casting
▪ In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
▪ Processes include:
▪ Basic permanent mold casting
▪ Die casting
▪ Centrifugal casting

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The Basic Permanent Mold

Process

▪ Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

designed for easy, precise opening and closing
▪ Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys
are commonly made of steel or cast iron
▪ Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

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Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

(1) Mold is preheated and coated

for lubrication and heat dissipation

(2) Cores (if any are used) are

inserted and mold is closed

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Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

(3) Molten metal is poured into

the mold, where it solidifies

(4) Mold is opened

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Permanent Mold Casting:

Advantages and Limitations

▪ Advantages of permanent mold casting:

▪ Good dimensional control and surface finish
▪ Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in a
finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
▪ Limitations:
▪ Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
▪ Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
▪ High cost of mold

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Applications and Metals for

Permanent Mold Casting

▪ Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly
▪ Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
▪ Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron
▪ Unsuited to steels because of very high pouring
temperatures

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Die Casting

▪ A permanent mold casting process in which molten

metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
▪ Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
▪ Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
▪ Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes

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Die Casting Machines

▪ Designed to hold and accurately close two mold

halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
▪ Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

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Hot-Chamber Die Casting

▪ Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects

liquid metal under high pressure into the die
▪ High production rates
▪ 500 parts per hour not uncommon
▪ Applications limited to low melting-point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
▪ Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

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Hot-Chamber Die Casting

cycle: (1) with die closed and

plunger withdrawn, molten
metal flows into the chamber

(2) plunger forces metal in

chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.

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Hot-Chamber Die Casting

(3) Plunger is withdrawn, die is

opened, and casting is ejected

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Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Machine

▪ Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
▪ High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
▪ Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
▪ Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on
low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

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Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

(1) With die closed and ram

withdrawn, molten metal is
poured into the chamber

(2) Ram forces metal to

flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling
and solidification

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Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

(3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is ejected

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Molds for Die Casting

▪ Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging

steel
▪ Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
▪ Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
▪ Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to
prevent sticking

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Die Casting:
Advantages and Limitations
A die casting that measures about 400 mm
diagonally for a truck cab floor (courtesy of
George E. Kane Manufacturing Technology
Laboratory)
▪ Advantages:
▪ Economical for large production quantities
▪ Good accuracy and surface finish
▪ Thin sections possible
▪ Rapid cooling means small grain size and good strength
in casting
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Generally limited to metals with low metal points
▪ Part geometry must allow removal from die

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Centrifugal Casting

▪ A family of casting processes in which the mold is

rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
▪ The group includes:
▪ True centrifugal casting
▪ Semicentrifugal casting

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True Centrifugal Casting

▪ Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part

▪ In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather than
before
▪ Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
▪ Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but
inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially symmetric
forces

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Semicentrifugal
Casting

▪ Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than

tubular parts
▪ Molds use risers at center to supply feed metal
▪ Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections
than at center of rotation
▪ Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined
away, thus eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
▪ Examples: wheels and pulleys
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Centrifuge Casting

▪ Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis

of rotation, so molten metal poured into mold is distributed
to these cavities by centrifugal force
▪ Used for smaller parts
▪ Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

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Casting Quality

▪ There are numerous opportunities for things to go

wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
▪ The defects can be classified as follows:
▪ General defects common to all casting processes
▪ Defects related to sand casting process

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General Defects:
Misrun

▪ A casting that has

solidified before
completely filling
mold cavity

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General Defects:
Cold Shut

▪ Two portions of metal

flow together but there
is a lack of fusion due
to premature freezing

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General Defects:
Cold Shot

▪ Metal splatters during

pouring and solid
globules form and
become entrapped in
casting

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General Defects:
Shrinkage Cavity

▪ Depression in surface
or internal void caused
by solidification
shrinkage that restricts
amount of molten
metal available in last
region to freeze

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Sand Casting Defects:

Sand Blow

▪ Balloon-shaped gas
cavity caused by
release of mold
gases during pouring

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Sand Casting Defects:

Pin Holes

▪ Formation of many small

gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

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Sand Casting Defects:

Penetration

▪ When fluidity of liquid

metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold
or core, causing casting
surface to consist of a
mixture of sand grains
and metal

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Sand Casting Defects:

Mold Shift

▪ A step in the cast

product at parting
line caused by
sidewise relative
displacement of
cope and drag

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Example 1

▪ (USCS units) Caplets are used to support a sand core inside a sand mold cavity.
The design of the caplets and the manner in which they are placed in the mold
cavity surface allows each caplet to sustain a force of 8 lb. Several caplets are
located beneath the core to support it before pouring; and several other caplets are
placed above the core to resist the buoyancy force during pouring. If the volume of
the core = 120 in3, and the metal is brass, determine the minimum number of
caplets that should be placed (a) beneath the core, and (b) above the core.

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Example 2

▪ (USCS units) A horizontal true centrifugal casting operation is performed to

make cast iron pipe. The pipes have a length = 72.0 in, outside diameter = 6.0
in, and wall thickness = 0.375 in. (a) If the rotational speed of the pipe = 750
rev/min, determine the G-factor. (b) Is the operation likely to be successful? (c)
If not, what should the rotational speed be to achieve a G-factor of 60?

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Example 3

Horizontal centrifugal casting. Horizontal true centrifugal

casting is used to make aluminum rings with length = 5 cm,
outside diameter = 65 cm, and inside diameter = 60 cm. (a)
Determine the rotational speed that will provide a G-factor =
60. (b) Suppose that the ring were made out of steel instead of
aluminum. If the rotational speed computed in part (a) were
used in the steel casting operation, determine the G-factor and
(c) centrifugal force per square meter (Pa) on the mold wall. (d)
Would this rotational speed result in a successful operation?
The density of steel = 7.87 g/cm3.

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True Centrifugal Casting

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4vkUHb91H0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJVgAYsyl7o

▪ Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part

▪ In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather than
before
▪ Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
▪ Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc., but
inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially symmetric
forces

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True Centrifugal Casting

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References

1. M.P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

5/e, John Wiley & Sons, 2012
2. S. Kalpakjian, S.R. Schmid, Manufacturing engineering
and technology in SI units 8/e, Pearson, 2021
3. T.D. Sơn, T.A. Sơn, H.T. Hưng, Giáo trình Các Quá
Trình Chế Tạo, NXB ĐHQG Tp. HCM, 2018

Thank you!

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