Casting Processes

The Mold in Casting

▪ Mold contains a cavity whose

geometry determines part shape
▪ Actual size and shape of
cavity must be slightly
oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
▪ Molds are made of a variety of
materials, including sand,
plaster, ceramic, and metal
 Open Molds and Closed Molds

Two forms of mold:

(a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired part;
(b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and
requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.
 Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable mold
which must be destroyed to remove casting
▪ Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus
binders
▪ Advantage: more complex shapes possible
▪ Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent mold which
can be used over and over to produce many castings
▪ Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory
material)
▪ Advantage: higher production rates
▪ Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
 Casting Processes

The different casting processes are as follows:

1. Expendable mold processes
▪ Sand Casting
▪ Shell casting
▪ Investment casting
2. Permanent mold processes
▪ Basic permanent mold casting
▪ Die casting
▪ Centrifugal casting
 Overview of Sand Casting
▪ Sand casting is a cast part produced by forming a mold
from a sand mixture and then pouring molten liquid
metal into the cavity in the mold. The mold is then
cooled until the metal has solidified
▪ Most widely used casting process, accounting for a
significant majority of total tonnage cast (?)
▪ Nearly all alloys can be sand cast, including metals with
high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and
titanium
▪ Castings range in size from small to very large
▪ Production quantities from one to millions
A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an air
compressor frame
 Steps in Sand Casting

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2. Incorporate a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
5. Allow the metal to solidify and cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.
7. Clean and inspect casting
8. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties
 Production Steps in Sand Casting
Core
Pattern
making (if
making
needed)

Preparatio Mold
Sand
n of sand making

Raw Solidification Removal of

Melting Pouring
metal and cooling sand mold

Finished Cleaning and

casting inspection
 Making the Sand Mold
▪ The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern, then separating the mold into two
halves and removing the pattern
▪ The mold must also contain gating and riser system
▪ If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
▪ A new sand mold must be made for each part produced
 Shell Molding

Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand

held together by thermosetting resin binder

Gear housing
 Shell Molding

❖Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in

that molten metal is poured into an expendable mold. However, in shell
mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-
resin mixture around a pattern.

❖The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to
form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production
rates, while the disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast.
Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin
mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

❖Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous
metals, most commonly using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless
steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical parts are small-to-
medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder
heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.
 Shell Molding
Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag
metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing
sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
 Shell Molding
Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and
resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard
shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured
particles drop away;
 Shell Molding
Steps in shell-molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for
several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is
stripped from the pattern;
 Shell Molding

Steps in shell-molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are

assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring
is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue removed.
 Shell Molding

1. Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of

the desired part, typically from iron or steel. Aluminum for low volume
production or graphite for casting reactive materials are used.
2. Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370°C (350-
700°F) and coated with a lubricant to facilitate removal. Next, the
heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains a mixture of
sand and a resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-
resin mixture to coat the pattern. The heated pattern partially cures the
mixture, which now forms a shell around the pattern. Each pattern half
and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and then the
shell is ejected from the pattern.
 Shell Molding

1. Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and
securely clamped to form the complete shell mold. If any cores are
required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold. The shell mold
is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.
2. Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten
metal is poured from a ladle into the gating system and fills the mold
cavity.
3. Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed
to cool and solidify into the shape of the final casting.
4. Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can
be broken and the casting removed. Trimming and cleaning
processes are required to remove any excess metal from the feed
system and any sand from the mold.

EMU - Manufacturing Technology

 Advantages and Disadvantages
▪ Advantages of shell molding:
▪ Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
▪ Good dimensional accuracy - machining often
not required
▪ Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
▪ Can be mechanized for mass production
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ More expensive metal pattern
▪ Difficult to justify for small quantities
Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
❖In Investment casting, Molten metal is
poured into an expendable ceramic mold.

❖The mold is formed by using a wax pattern

- a disposable piece in the shape of the
desired part. The pattern is surrounded, or
"invested", into ceramic slurry that hardens
into the mold. Investment casting is often
referred to as "lost-wax casting" because the
wax pattern is melted out of the mold after it
has been formed.
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

❖Lost-wax processes are one-to-one (one pattern creates one part), which
increases production time and costs relative to other casting processes.
However, since the mold is destroyed during the process, parts with
complex geometries and intricate details can be created.

❖Investment casting can make use of most metals, most commonly using
aluminum alloys, bronze alloys, magnesium alloys, cast iron, stainless
steel, and tool steel. This process is beneficial for casting metals with high
melting temperatures that cannot be molded in plaster or metal.

❖Parts that are typically made by investment casting include those with
complex geometry such as turbine blades or firearm components. High
temperature applications are also common, which includes parts for the
automotive, aircraft, and military industries.

❖Investment casting requires the use of a metal die, wax, ceramic slurry,
furnace, molten metal, and any machines needed for sandblasting, cutting,
or grinding.
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced, (2)

several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin
layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering
the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted position

and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity, (6)
the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is
poured, and it solidifies
 Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away

from the finished casting and the parts are separated
from the sprue
 Investment Casting

1. Pattern creation - The wax patterns are typically injection molded into
a metal die and are formed as one piece. Cores may be used to form
any internal features on the pattern. Several of these patterns are
attached to a central wax gating system (sprue, runners, and risers), to
form a tree-like assembly. The gating system forms the channels
through which the molten metal will flow to the mold cavity.
2. Mold creation - This "pattern tree" is dipped into slurry of fine
ceramic particles, coated with more coarse particles, and then dried to
form a ceramic shell around the patterns and gating system. This
process is repeated until the shell is thick enough to withstand the
molten metal it will encounter. The shell is then placed into an oven
and the wax is melted out leaving a hollow ceramic shell that acts as a
one-piece mold, hence the name "lost wax" casting.
 Investment Casting

4. Pouring - The mold is preheated in a furnace to approximately 1000°C

(1832°F) and the molten metal is poured from a ladle into the gating system
of the mold, filling the mold cavity. Pouring is typically achieved manually
under the force of gravity, but other methods such as vacuum or pressure
are sometimes used.
5. Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool
and solidify into the shape of the final casting. Cooling time depends on the
thickness of the part, thickness of the mold, and the material used.
6. Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be
broken and the casting removed. The ceramic mold is typically broken
using water jets, but several other methods exist. Once removed, the parts
are separated from the gating system by either sawing or cold breaking
(using liquid nitrogen).
7. Finishing - Often times, finishing operations such as grinding or sandblasting
are used to smooth the part at the gates. Heat treatment is also sometimes
used to harden the final part.
 Investment Casting

A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils

made by investment casting
Advantages and Disadvantages
▪ Advantages of investment casting:
▪ Parts of great complexity and intricacy can
be cast
▪ Close dimensional control and good surface
finish
▪ Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
▪ Additional machining is not normally
required - this is a net shape process
▪ Disadvantages
▪ Many processing steps are required
▪ Relatively expensive process
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

▪ Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new mold is

required for every casting
▪ In permanent mold casting a metal mold can be reused for several
thousand cycles
▪ Permanent mold casting is typically used for high-volume
production of small, simple metal parts with uniform wall thickness.
▪ Common permanent mold parts include gears and gear housings,
pipe fittings, and other automotive and aircraft components.
▪ The processes include:
▪ Basic permanent mold casting
▪ Die casting
▪ Centrifugal casting
 The Basic Permanent Mold Process

▪ Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed

for easy, precise opening and closing

•Molds used for casting lower

melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or
cast iron

•Molds used for casting steel

must be made of refractory
material, due to the very high
pouring temperatures
 Steps in Permanent Mold Casting
Step 1: Mold is preheated and coated

First, the mold is pre-heated to around 300-500°F (150-260°C) to allow

better metal flow and reduce defects. Then, a ceramic coating is applied to
the mold cavity surfaces to facilitate part removal and increase the mold
lifetime.
 Permanent Mold Casting
Step 2: Mold assembly
❖- The mold consists of at least two parts - the two mold halves
and any cores used to form complex features. Such cores are
typically made from iron or steel, but expendable sand cores
are sometimes used. In this step, the cores are inserted and the
mold halves are clamped together.
 Permanent Mold Casting
Step 3: Pouring

❖The molten metal is

poured at a slow rate from
a ladle into the mold
through a sprue at the top
of the mold. The metal
flows through a runner
system and enters the
mold cavity.
 Step 4: Cooling
❖The molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify in the
mold.
Step 5: Mold opening
❖After the metal has solidified, the two mold halves are
opened and the casting is removed.
Step 6: Trimming
❖During cooling, the metal in the runner system and sprue
solidify attached to the casting. This excess material is now cut
away.
 Advantages and Limitations
▪ Advantages of permanent mold casting:
▪ Good dimensional control and surface finish
▪ More rapid solidification caused by the cold
metal mold results in a finer grain structure,
so castings are stronger
▪ Limitations:
▪ Generally limited to metals of lower melting
point
▪ Simpler part geometries compared to sand
casting because of need to open the mold
▪ High cost of mold
EMU - Manufacturing Technology
 Die Casting
▪ Can produce geometrically complex metal parts through
the use of reusable molds, called dies.
▪ The die casting process involves the use of a furnace,
metal, die casting machine, and die. The metal is melted
in the furnace and then injected into mold cavity under
high pressure.
▪ Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is
opened and part is removed
▪ Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the
name die casting
▪ Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
 Die Casting application

❖One common application of die cast parts are housings - thin-

walled enclosures, often requiring many ribs and bosses on the
interior.

❖Metal housings for a variety of appliances and equipment are

often die cast. Several automobile components are also
manufactured using die casting, including pistons, cylinder heads,
and engine blocks.

❖Other common die cast parts include propellers, gears, bushings,

pumps, and valves.
 Die Casting Machines
Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and
keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity

Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine (used
for alloys with low melting
temperatures, such as zinc)
2. Cold-chamber machine (used
for alloys with high melting
temperatures, such as
aluminum).

❖Differences between these machines on equipment and tooling. However, in

both machines, after the molten metal is injected into the dies, it rapidly cools
and solidifies into the final part, called the casting.
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container,
and a piston injects liquid metal
under high pressure into the
die
▪ High production rates - 500
parts per hour not uncommon
▪ Applications limited to low
melting-point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and
other mechanical components
▪ Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead,
and magnesium
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger

withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (2) plunger forces metal in

chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.
Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
▪ High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
▪ Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
▪ Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use
on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die closed, molten

metal is poured into the chamber
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow

into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
 Molds for Die Casting
▪ Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
▪ Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
▪ Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
▪ Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
 Advantages and Limitations
▪ Advantages of die casting:
▪ Economical for large production quantities
▪ Good accuracy and surface finish
▪ Thin sections are possible
▪ Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Generally limited to metals with low metal
points
▪ Part geometry must allow removal from die
 Centrifugal Casting

❖Centrifugal casting is a metal casting process that uses

centrifugal force to form cylindrical parts.

❖This differs from most metal casting processes, which

use gravity or pressure to fill the mold.

❖A permanent mold made from steel, cast iron, or

graphite is typically used.

❖The casting process is usually performed on a horizontal

centrifugal casting machine (vertical machines are also
available).

❖Centrifugal casting is used to produce axi-symmetric

parts, such as cylinders or disks, which are typically hollow.
Centrifugal Casting
 Steps in Centrifugal Casting

1. Mold preparation - The walls of a cylindrical mold are first coated with a
refractory ceramic coating, which involves a few steps (application, rotation,
drying, and baking). Once prepared and secured, the mold is rotated about its
axis at high speeds (300-3000 RPM), typically around 1000 RPM.

2. Pouring - Molten metal is poured directly into the rotating mold, without the
use of runners or a gating system. The centrifugal force drives the material
towards the mold walls as the mold fills.

3. Cooling - With all of the molten metal in the mold, the mold remains
spinning as the metal cools. Cooling begins quickly at the mold walls and
proceeds inwards.

4. Casting removal - After the casting has cooled and solidified, the rotation is
stopped and the casting can be removed.

5. Finishing - While the centrifugal force drives the dense metal to the mold
walls, any less dense impurities or bubbles flow to the inner surface of the
casting. As a result, secondary processes such as machining, grinding, or sand-
blasting, are required to clean and smooth the inner diameter of the part.
❖Due to the high centrifugal forces, these parts have a very fine grain
on the outer surface and possess mechanical properties approximately
30% greater than parts formed with static casting methods.

❖These parts may be cast from ferrous metals such as low alloy steel,
stainless steel, and iron, or from non-ferrous alloys such as aluminum,
bronze, copper, magnesium, and nickel.

❖Centrifugal casting is performed in wide variety of industries,

including aerospace, industrial, marine, and power transmission.

❖Typical parts include bearings, bushings, coils, cylinder liners,

nozzles, pipes/tubes, pressure vessels, pulleys, rings, and wheels.