Glass Industry

M Nuruzzaman Khan
 -- --
Contents
• Introduction
• General properties of glass
• Raw materials of glass
• Glass manufacturing
• Melting
• Pot furnace
• Tank furnace
• Video on glass manufacturing
• Chemical reactions
• Farming and Shaping
• Annealing
• Finishing
• Types of glasses
• Properties of different types of glasses
General properties of glass

./ Amorphous Solid Crystalllne St02 Amorphous $10 2

(Quartz) (Glass)

./ No definite melting point

./ Very brittk_
./ Softens on heating
./ Can absorb, reflect and transmit light
./ Good electrical insulator
./ Affected by alkalis
./ Not affected by air,water,acid or chemical reagents. But soluble
iJn HF which converts into SiF4
./ Possesses high compressive strength and since it doesn't have any crystalline
structure , no slippage between planes can occur
./ Light in weight because it has homogeneous internal structure similar to liquids
"Glass is an amorphous, hard, brittle, transparent or translucent, super-cooled
liquid, obtained by fusing a mixture of a number of metallic silicates, most
commonly 1�a: K/:a and Pb". It possesses no sharp melting point, crystalling
structure and definite formula

Represented as xR20. yMO . 6Si02

R = monovalent alkali metals like Na,K

M = Divalent metals like Ca, Pb,Zn, etc
x & y = whole numbers

• Approximate composition of ordinary glass(Soda lime glass) is

Na20 . CaO . 6Si02
• In some glasses, SiO 2 may be replaced by Al2 03 . B 2 03 . P2 05 ,

etc
 Name of the Source of the element Name of the
Glass Components element glass produced
Sodium
� (Na), 14
• Others, I Sodium (Na) N�C03,N�S04 Soft glass
2 Potassium (K) Potash, K2C03 ,KN03 Hard glass

3 Calcium (Ca) Lime, limestone Glass with

high RI
Barium 4 Barium (Ba) BaC03 Glass with
(Ba), 4
high RI
5 Lead Litharge, red lead Flint glass
• Potassium (K) • Cal cium (Ca)
Sodium (Na)
6 Zinc Zinc Oxide Heat&Shock
Barium (Ba) • Silica • Others proof glass

7 Borate Borax, boric acid Heat&shock

proof glass
•
8 Silica Sand, quartz
Colo1·s Ferric Salt
Yellow
Green Ferrous and chromium
Blue Cobalt salt
Glass Manufacturing

Manufacturing of glass consists of following high level steps

1. Melting

a. Pot furnace

b. Tank furnace

2. Forming and shaping

3. Annealing

4. Finishing
Melting

• Raw materials in proper proportions (sand, soda ash

and lime stone ) are mixed and finely owdered
• The homogenous mixture known as Batch is fused with
some broken glass , called "Cullet" in any of the two
types of furnaces
• The homogeneous mixture is melted either in
a. Pot furnace or
b. Tank furnace
• The batch melts and fuses at 1800° C
 � Two types of pots are used
Figure showing Pot furnace
a. Open crucible type pot
b. Closed covered type pot
� Generally closed covered type pot is used
��.11.--�������
l......-..---c----=-cn---------fA �
Pot is placed in a circle around a central
opening in its bottom
� Heated by burning producer gas and air
�--.......__--�/�,.:=:;-----UI---'�
� Roof of the pot is constructed with refractory
f Hot Gases
material which also reflects the heat
� Also called as batch process
 Fuel gas and air being
./ The "batch" is melted in the tank using heated by hot checker
Burning fuel gas
work

producer gas and air

Molten gas

./ It follows "regenerative system of heat

economy"
./ Air and fuel is passes through A & B
Fuel gas Fuel gases
./ The burnt gases are deflected by the roof
Air

and "batch" gets melted Figure s.iowing tank furnace

./ Hot waste gas escapes through firebricks

C&D
./ The direction of the fuel gas & air is reversed through C&D , which absorbs the
heat of the waste gas and bums
./ The waste as now esca es throu h A & B
• Cullet melts at relatively low temperature and assists in melting of rest of

the charge
• During the melting process following reactions occur

CaC03 + Si02 ----- CaSi0 3 + CO2 t

Na2 C03 + Si02 Na2 Si03 + CO2 t

• The molten mass is heated till its free from air bubbles
• For colored gases desired pigment is added
• The molten tnass is then cooled at about 800°C at later point of ti1ne
./ Molten gas is converted to desired shape by blowing or moulding or pressing
between rollers - "Forming ana Shaping"
./ Articles are then cooled gradually at room temperature. "Annealing"
The longer the annealing period better the quality of glass
./ After annealing, the atiicles are subjected to cleaning, polishing, cutting, sand
blasting etc., - "Finishing"
 TYPES OF GLASSES

1. Soda-lime or soda glass

2. Potash lime or hard glass
3. Lead glass or Flint glass
4. Borosilicate glass or Pyrex glass or Jena glass
5. Alumina silicate glass
6. Optical or Crookes glass
7. Glass wool
8. Quartz glass
9. Opal glass
 Soda-lime (or) Soft glass
Raw Materials
• Silica
• CaC0 3
• Soda ash
Properties
• Low cost
• Resistant to water
• Attacked by acids
Composition
• Melts easily
Na20 . CaO . 6Si02
• Moulded easily to any shape
• Poor thermal & chemical resistance

Uses
Window glasses, electric bulbs, bottles, jars, table wares etc.,
Raw Materials
• Silica
• CaCO 3
• K2CO 3
Properties
• High M@lting point
• Not attacked by acids, alkali and other solvents Composition
• Costlier than soda-lime glass K2 0 . CaO . 6Si02

Uses
Combustion tubes, chemical cpparatus
 Lead glass (or) Flint glass
Raw Materials
• Silica
• Lead Oxide
• Potassium Oxide

Properties
• Bright, lustrous and possessesJiigh specific gravity
• Expensive.to manufacture , than ordinary lime-soda glass
• Lower softening temperature than soda- ime g ass
Composition • Higher refractive index and excellent electrical properties
K20 . PbO . 6Si02
Uses
• High quality table wares, neon sign tubings , optical lenses
• High dense glasses are used for windows to protect from
X-rays and gamma rays
Raw Materials K20 3 %
Al 20 3 3 %
• Silica
8203 13 %
• Small a1nount of alumina
• Some oxides

Properties
• Substitution of alkali (Na2 0) and basic alkaline
earth oxides( CaO) of the soda glasses by boron
and aluminium oxides results in low thermal co-efficient
• High softening point and excellent resistivity(shock proof) Composition
• High chemical resistance

Uses
Industrial pipeline for corrosive liquids, gauge glasses,
superior laboratory apparatus etc.,
 Alumino Silicate glass
Raw Materials Ca05%
• 5 % more of alumina
• Addition of alumina makes glass heat resistant

Properties
• Exceptionally high softening temperature
• Chemically dura e
• Resistance to hydrolysis
• Affected by moisture due to high surface area
Composition
Uses
• High pressure mercury discharge tubes, chemical
combustion tubes, specific domestic equipment
• Fiber glass
 Optical glass Quartz glass Opal glass

Raw Material Raw Material Rav- Material

• Phosphorous and lead • Crystalline silica fused at • NaF (or) CaF2 (or)
silicate together with sn1all 1900 °C CaiPO4)i (or) SnO2
amount of cerium oxide
Prope11ies Properties
• Outstanding resistance to • Translucent white or milky
Properties thermal shock and glasses
• Low melting point chemicals • Transparent when in liquid
• Soft Uses • Opaque when cooled
• Chen1ical-resistance • Special lab-ware
• Durability lesser than • Crucibles
ordinary glasses • Reaction tubes
• Absorbs UV light

Uses
Optical lenses
 • Fibrous wool-like material, composed of
intermingled fine threads (or) filaments of glass
• Alkali free
• Glass filaments are obtained by forcing molten
glass through small orifices which 1neasures about
0.0005 to 0.0007 mm m iameter
Properties
• Very good fire-proof and heat proof
• Very low electircal conductivity and thermal conductivity
• Resistance to water and most chemicals
• Tensile strength is 8X of steel
Us-es
• Heat insulation purpose
I
• Electrical and souna insu ation
• Filtration of corrosive liquids like acids
• Manufacturing fibre-g ass, by blending with plastic resins
In float glass process , a ribbon of glass is made by pouring molten glass from the
furnace to a bed of molten metal such as tin, lead and low melting point alloys under
controlled atmosphere. The molten glass floats on a thin bath of molten metal and then
moves through the temperature-controlled kiln (also known as Lehr) and solidifies.
The temperature of glass is maintained at lOOOQC for a long period of time to separate
irregularities and to get the desired flat surface. Glass produced by this technique has
uniform thickness, smooth surface and does not require any further grinding and
polishing.

:Molten glass Controlled atmosphere

Heating zone Cooling zone

Figure 2. Float glass process of forming flat glass.

In the drawing or rolling process (Figure 3), the continuous stream of molten glass
from a furnace passes through a pair of water cooled rollers. Generally, this process
is used to make patterned glass and wired glass. The patterned glass is made by passing
the glass through the rollers at a temperature of 10502C. This type of glass is made
in a single pass process. Gap between the rollers are adjusted to get the desired
thickness of flat-sheet glass. Similarly, wired glass is made by meshing steel wire into
molten glass by rolling process. It is used for making low cost fire resistant glass which
automatically breaks at high temperatures.

Forming rolls

y
Supporting rolls

Figure 3. Rolling of flat glass.

 fibers
Fiberglass is available in two types: continuous glass fiber and short glass fiber (glass wool).
The first one is used in fabrication of composite materials and latter one is used for thermal
insulation. Continuous glass fiber is produced by drawing molten glass through multiple
orifices. The speed during drawing can be upto 500 m/s. Fibers of small diameter (2µm) can be
produced by this process. The process is schematically shown in Figure 4 (a). In glass wool process
(Figure 4 (b)), the molten glass is ejected from a rotating head by centrifugal spraying process.
The rotating head or spinner cup contains more than 2000 holes. Since the holes diameter of spinner
is very small, only fine fiber is formed. Air is supplied from the top to direct the fiber downward and
to reduce the temperature. As the fibers descend, the binder is mixed to achieve the required
wool criteria. The amount of binder decides the mechanical properties of wool. In this process,
the diameter of the fiber can be achieved from 20-30µm.

Mol1en�ss

Orifice plait

Filame11ts
Shon
fibtn

11tin11ous stn11d
(b)
(a)
\\'illdtr Con,·tyor �II

Figure 4. Glass fiber processing: (a) continuous glass filament process; (b) glass wool process.
 -

illubing

In this process, molten glass flows around a rotating hollow cone-shaped or cylindrical
mandrel through which air is supplied continuously to avoid the collapsing of glass
tube while the glass is drawn out by set of rollers. The temperature and flow rate of
blown air determine the diameter and thickness of the glass tube. The process is
shown in Figure 5.

Airin

�olten glass

Figure 5. Continuous glass tubing process.

 History of the glass

Drawn sheet glass (vertical): Fourcault (1906) &

Pittsburgh process

Glass ribbon

Glass mass

drive
�- Debiteuse

- www.yc
AGC
G\A)$ UHllf.lltl 0
The Fourcault process is a method
of manufacturing flat glass. First
developed in Belgium by Emile
Fourcault (1862-1919) during the
early 1900s, the process was used
globally.

Fourcault is an example of a
"vertical draw" process, in that the
glass is drawn against gravity in an
upward direction.[Gravity forces
000
influence parts of the process.
Rour.cault process

The Fourcault process requires a "pit" or drawing area and an

assembly of machines to draw up the ribbon of glass while
performing actions upon it that ensure desired quality and
process yields. Today most glass manufacture has a "hot end"
where the products are made. Fourcault is no exception.

The action in Fourcault happens "at the draw", or area where

the glass is taken from a liquid state into the start of the process
needed to make it into flat glass.

The Fourcault Process uses a ceramic die to shape fused (or

molten) glass into a ribbon of rectangular cross section. The die,
known as a Debiteuse, floats in the molten glass inside of the pit
to a prescribed depth which slightly pushes a part of the molten
glass slightly above the top surface of the die. A slot is cut
through the center of the Deb1teuse, which is shaped to produce
the best quality of glass.
Colburn process

In Colburn's process, the production of sheet glass using

began with an iron rod as "bait" immersed lengthwise in a
shallow tank of molten glass.
This caused some glass to stick to the rod, where upon an electric motor
pulled the
rod, drawing a ribbon of glass horizontally over a set of
rollers which roughly formed a flat sheet of glass as it
continued to be drawn out of the molten reservoir.
Its width was controlled by water-cooled side rollers as it
approached a flattening table. In the next stage, the glass
sheet passed through an annealing oven supported on a
train of asbestos-surfaced rollers.

The final step was to cut

the work into plate glass sheets of the required size.
 •"

Colburn Processes ---------....- -

Colbun1 prt r.:e�s

Float process

The Float Glass Process is used to malke high-quality, flat

glass for the construction and automotive industry.
Developed in 1959, this highly-technical manufacturing
process involves
Toughened or tempered glass

Glass can fracture due to stress concentration. To avoid the fracture of glass,
local high compressive stresses are induced near the surfaces. This is done by
thermal toughening of glass.

Initially, the glass plate is heated to 6502C after which the outer surface is rapidly
cooled by air blasts.

Due to which thin compressive layer is created at the outer surface and the center
of the glass becomes the region of tensile stresses. This causes the self-equilibrium.

The glasses used in glazed door and making tabletops are made by this process and
is termed as toughened or safety glass.
Laminated glass

It is made by bonding of two or more pieces of safety glass. The adhesive

mostly used for bonding is polyvinyl butyral (PVB).

Depending upon the number of safety glass layers, the strength of the glass
may be increased or decreased.

Nowadays, laminated glass is produced by bonding number of annealed glass

layers with plastic interlayers.

This type of glass is used in automobile windshields where strength is one of the
key issues.