Unit-I

1.A matrix (plural matrices) is an ordered rectangular array (i.e., arrangement or display) of numbers
or functions.
2.The elements of a matrix are always enclosed in bracket [] or parenthesis ().
3.The numbers or functions in a matrix are called elements or entries of the matrix.
4.A horizontal line of elements is called row of the matrix and a vertical line of elements is called
column of the matrix.
5.A matrix having 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns is called a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 or simply 𝑚 × 𝑛
matrix (read as 𝑚 by 𝑛 matrix).
6.The element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is in the 𝑖𝑡ℎ and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column and it is called (𝑖, 𝑗)𝑡ℎ element.

7.A matrix whose all elements are zero is called a null matrix or zero matrix. It is denoted by O.
8.A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.
9.A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.
10. matrix is said to be a square matrix if it has same number of rows and columns.
11.The elements 𝑎11,𝑎22, … … . . 𝑎𝑛𝑛 are called diagonal elements.

1. A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑛×𝑛 is called diagonal matrix if all the non-diagonal

elements are zero i.e. if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
2. A diagonal matrix of order 𝑛 , having diagonal elements 𝑑1,𝑑2,……𝑑𝑛 is denoted
by diag [𝑑1,𝑑2,……𝑑𝑛].

3. A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑛×𝑛 is called

scalar matrix if all the non-diagonal elements are zero and the diagonal elements are
equal.
4. A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑛×𝑛 is called identity matrix or unit matrix if all the non-
diagonal elements are zero and diagonal elements are unity. The identity matrix of
order 𝑛 is denoted by 𝐼𝑛

5. Two matrices 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗] and 𝐵=

[𝑏𝑖𝑗] are said to be equal if
(i) A and B have same order, and
(ii)𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for all 𝑖 and 𝑗
6. A+B is a matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of matrices A and B.
7. Properties of matrix addition:

i). Matrix addition is commutative: If A and B are two matrices of same order,
then A
+B=B+A
 ii). Matrix addition is associative: If A, B and C are three matrices of same order,
then
A + (B+C) = (A+B) + C
iii). Existence of Additive Identity: The null matrix O is the additive identity for
matrix addition, i.e. A+O =O+A=A
iv). Existence of Additive Inverse: For every matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗] there exists a
unique matrix −𝐴 = [−𝑎𝑖𝑗] such that

𝐴 + (−𝐴) = 𝑂 = (−𝐴) + 𝐴.
The matrix −𝐴 is called the additive
inverse of the matrix A.

8. A – B is a matrix obtained by subtracting the elements of B from the corresponding

elements of A.

9. kA is a matrix obtained by multiplying each element of A by scalar k.

10. Properties of scalar multiplication:

(i) k(A+B)=kA+kB (ii) (k+l)A=kA+lA

11. Let A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 and B=[𝑏𝑗𝑘]𝑛×𝑝 be two matrices, then we define multiplication of
matrices A and B as AB=[𝐶𝑖𝑘]𝑚×𝑝 where 𝐶 𝑘is obtained by first taking the element-
wise products of elements of 𝑖𝑡ℎ row of A and 𝑘𝑡ℎ column of B, and then adding such
products.

12. The product AB is defined only if the number of columns of A and number of rows of
B are same.

13. In the product AB, the matrix A is called pre-multiplier matrix and the matrix B is
called post-multiplier matrix.

14. Properties of matrix multiplication:

(i) Matrix multiplication is associative. For any three matrices A, B and C we
have (AB)C=A(BC) whenever both sides of above equality are defined.

(ii) Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition. For any three
matrices A, B and C, we have,
A(B+C)=AB+AC and (A+B)C=AC+BC
Whenever both sides of above equalities are defined.
 (iii) Existence of multiplicative identity; For every square matrix, A, there exists
an identity matrix of same order such that IA=AI=A.

(iv) Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general. For any two matrices A
and B, if both the products AB and BA are defined, it is not necessary that AB=BA
(i.e., commutativity may hold in some cases and may not hold in some other cases).
(v) Zero matrix as the product of two non-zero matrices: if the product of two
matrices is a zero matrix, then it is not necessary that one of the matrices is a zero
matrix.

15. Transpose of matrix A is the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns
of A. It is also denoted by 𝐴𝑇 or 𝐴′

16. Properties of transpose of matrices:

(i) For any matrix A, we have (𝐴𝑇)𝑇 = 𝐴.
(ii) For any matrix A and scalar k, we have
(𝑘𝐴)𝑇 = 𝐾𝐴𝑇
(iii) For any two matrices A and B of same order, we have
(a) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇
(b) (𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 − 𝐵𝑇
(iv) For any two matrices A and B for which AB is defined, we have (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 =
𝐵𝑇 𝐴 𝑇

17. A square matrix A is said to be symmetric matrix if 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴

18. A square matrix A is said to be skew

symmetric matrix if 𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴
19. Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew
symmetric matrix.

20. Principle of mathematical induction: Let P(n) be a statement involving natural number
n such that,

(i) P(I) is true, and,

(ii) P(k) is true implies P(k+1) is true Then P(n) is true for all natural
numbers n.

Determinants

1. Let A be any square matrix. We can associate a unique expression or number with this
square matrix called determinant of A. It is denoted by det. A or |𝐴|
2. For any square matrix A of order n, we have
(i) |𝐴𝑇| = |𝐴| (ii) |𝑘𝐴| = 𝑘 𝑛|𝐴 |
3. For any two square matrices A and B of same order, we have |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
4. A square matrix A is said to be singular if |𝐴| = 0
5. Let A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗] be a square matrix. The Minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of A is the
determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting 𝑖𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ
column of A.
6. Minor of an element of a square matrix of order
𝑛 (𝑛 ≥ 2) is a determinant of order (𝑛 − 1)
7. The Cofactor 𝐴𝑖𝑗 of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of a square matrix A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗] is defined as

𝑖+𝑗
𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1) 𝑀𝑖𝑗
8. |𝐴|=sum of product of elements (of any row or column) with their corresponding
cofactors.
9. If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other row (or
column) than their sum is zero.
10. Let A be a square matrix of order n, If there exists a square matrix B of same order n such
that AB=BA=𝐼𝑛, then we say that A is invertible. The matrix B is called inverse matrix of
A and is denoted by 𝐴−1.
11. Uniqueness of inverse: Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
12. For any two square meters A and B (for which AB is defined), we have
((𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1𝐴−1...
13. For any square matrix A, we have
14.
(i) (𝐴𝑇)−1 = (𝐴−1)𝑇 (ii) (𝐴−1)−1 = 𝐴 (iii)
𝐴−1𝐴 = 𝐼 = 𝐴𝐴−1
15. For any invertible square matrix A and non-
zero scalar k, we have (𝑘𝐴 )−1 1 −1
= 𝐴
𝑘
16. Let A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗] be a square matrix of order n.
Then, we define adjoint of A as
adj A = [𝐴𝑖𝑗]𝑇 , where 𝐴𝑖𝑗 denotes the cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 in A.

17. For any square matrix A of order n and scalar k, we have

(i) A (adj A)=(adj A) A = |𝐴|𝐼𝑛

(ii) |𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)| = |𝐴|𝑛−1
(iii) |𝐴 (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)| = |𝐴|𝑛
2
(iv) |𝑎𝑑𝑗 (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)| = |𝐴|(𝑛−1)
(v) adj (kA)
APPLICATION OF MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

1) The six elementary transformation on a matrix are:

(i) Interchange of any two rows, 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗
(ii) Multiplication of all elements of any row by a non-zero scalar, 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑘𝑅𝑖

(iii) Addition to the elements of any row, the

corresponding elements of any other row
multiplied by a non-zero scalar, 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑅𝑗

(iv) Interchange of any two columns, 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗

(v) Multiplication of all the elements of any column by a non-zero scalar, 𝐶𝑖
↔ 𝑘𝐶𝑖

(vi) Addition to the elements of any column, the

corresponding elements of any other column multiplied by a non-zero scalar,
2) We can use either elementary row transformations or elementary column transformations
to find the inverse, but both cannot be used simultaneously.

3) Let A = PQ, then

(i) The effect of any elementary row operation on A is same as applying the
elementary row operation on P (i.e. pre-multiplier) and keeping Q unchanged.
(ii) The effect of any elementary column operation on A is same as
applying this
elementary column operation on Q (i.e. post- multiplier) and keeping P unchanged.

4) Consider the following systems of linear

equations in three variables:
𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1𝑦 + 𝑐1𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑏2𝑦 + 𝑐2𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3𝑥 + 𝑏3𝑦 + 𝑐3𝑧 = 𝑑3

Then above system of equations can be written (in matrix form) as

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥
𝑑1

[𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2] [𝑦] = [𝑑 ] i.e. AX = B

2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥
Where A = [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2] , X= [𝑦] 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑧
 𝑑1
𝐵 = [𝑑2 ]

𝑑3

The matrix A is called coefficient matrix.

1) Solutions: A set of values of x, y and z which simultaneously satisfy all the equations of
the system is called a solution of the system of equations.
2) Consistent System: A system of equations is said to be consistent if it has one or more
solutions. A consistent system can either have a unique solution or infinitely many
solutions.

A system of equations is said to be consistent and independent if it has unique

solution.
A system of equations is said to be consistent and dependent if it has infinitely many
solutions.

3) Inconsistent System : A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if it has no

solution.
4) Non-Homogenous System: A system of equations AX=B is said to be non-homogeneous
if B ≠ O.
5) Homogeneous system: A system of equations AX=B is said to be homogeneous if B=O.

PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

1) If each element in a row (or column) of a determinant is zero, then the value of the
determinant is zero.
2) If any two rows (or column) of a determinant are identical, then the value of the
determinant is zero.
3) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign of the
determinant changes.
4) If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k, then
the value gets multiplied by k. In other words, we can take out any common factor from
any row (or column) of a determinant.
5) If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed as sum of two
(or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as sum of two (or more)
determinants.
 2

©Sudhanshu Sekhar Sahoo, Assistant Professor, DAV School of Business Management, Bhubaneswar