GTi nie Bonding ovalent, covalent and co-ordinate Exot valinate bonding, structure | Ee eecrmealent Bonding 'E Stmctures of Various compounds, Hectron dot structure + Electron dot Structure of Electnovaten + Characteristic properties of enn roams NaCl, MC. Cad: electrovalent compar {heat and electricity dssocation slag cant sate of existence, melting and boiling points, cacy valent Bonding cand in mol ten state 1 he linked with electrolysis. (by Co + Electron dot structure of covalent mol oxygen, chlorine, nitmgen, ammonia, + Polar covalent compounds — based om di is np Lnased on diference is eleciunegatisty — Examples — HCL, NH, and H,0 including structures. + Characteristic properties of Covalem mann i eneR eee Peat compounds ~ state of existence, melting and boiling points, conductivity (heat Comparison of Electrovalent and Covatent compounds {) Coordinate Bondin eee + Definition + The lone pair effect of the oxyge | molecle to explain the foram 8 The meaning of lone pair; electron dot diagrams. f of the water molecule and the nitrogen atom of the ammonia he lain the formation of H,O* and OH™ ions in water and NH} ion he formation of hydroniwm ion and ammonium ion must be explained with the help of 2.1 INTRODUCTION chemically by redistribution of electrons in the Everything in this world wants stability, so is #/ermost shell or valence electrons so that each is the case with atoms. For atoms, stability mean, lft with a stable electronic configuration (duplet having the electron arrangement of an inert gas, ie, OF octet). octet in its outermost shell. Helium has two electrons (DUPLET) while all other inert gases, ic, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon have eight electrons (OCTET) in their outermost shell, as given Cause of chemical combination is the tendency of elements to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration in their outermost orbit and become stable. in Table 2.1 below. ‘Table 2.1 Electronte configuration During redistribution of electrons, a force of of the inert gases, attraction develops between atoms, which binds inert Atomic | Electronic configuration | Nef] them together to form molecules. This force of es Ne KT LT MTN [OP elenee, | attraction is known as the chemical bond. He 2 [2 2 A chemical bond may be defined as the force of | Ne us 2 4 s f attraction between any two atoms, in a molecule, fe | 6° lea Jew Naples, g fo maintain stability. Me | 54 |] 2 | 8 fash [isis 8 There are three methods in which atoms can Ro | 8 | 2| 8 |18}32/18]s} 8 achieve a stable configuration. It is found that the elements with their complete (1) ‘The transfer of one or more electrons from one outermost shell do not react or are least reactive. atom to the other to form an electrovalent (or We, therefore, conclude that the atoms having 8 an ionic) bond, electrons (or 2 electrons, Helium configuration) in (yy their outermost shells are very stable and unreactive. Therefore, to attain stability, atoms tend to combine Sharing of one, two or three pairs of electrons between two atoms to form a covalent (or a molecular) bond. 21(3) When the shared electron pairs are contributed by only one of the combining atoms, the bond formed is known as coordinate (or dative) bond. 2.2 ELECTROVALENT (OR IONIC) BOND Atoms of metallic elements that have 1, 2 or 3 Valence electrons can lose electron(s) to atoms of Non-metallic elements, which have 7, 6 or 5 electrons respectively in their outermost shell and thereby forming an clectrovalent compound. After the transfer of electron(s), both the combining atoms acquire the electronic configuration of the nearest inet gas. A metallic atom, which loses electron(s), becomes a positively charged ion and is known as a cation and a non-metallic atom, which gains electron(s), becomes a negatively charged ion and is known as an anion. ‘An ion is a charged particle which is formed due to the gain or the loss of one or more electrons by an atom. ‘A metallic element, whose one atom readily loses electron(s) to form a positively charged ion, is an electropositive element. Na-e + Na* (cation) ‘A non-metallic element, whose atom readily accepts electron(s) to form a negatively charged ion, is an electronegative element. Cl +e CI (anion) The cation and the anion being oppositely charged attract each other and form a chemical bond. Since this chemical bond formation is due to the electrostatic force of attraction between a cation and an anion, it is called an electrovalent (or an ionic) bond. Electrovalent (or ionic) compounds : The chemical compounds formed as a result of the transfer of electrons from one atom of an element 10 one atom of another element are called ionic (or electrovalent) compounds. Electrovalency : The number of electrons that ‘an atom of an element loses or gains to form a electrovalent bond is called its electrovalency. Conditions for the formation of an electrovalent (or lonic) bond When an ionic compound is formed, the neutra {to a cation of an anion. The anions depends on the 2.2.1 atom is chan formation of cations and 3 following factors : 1. Low ionisation potential : If the ionisation potential of a particular atom is Tow, it will lose clectron(s) easily, ie., a cation is formed easily High electron affini is high, anion will be fo electron affinity value favours ionic bonding, Large electronegativity difference = If the difference in the electronegativities of two elements is higher, then the transfer of electrons will be easier. Therefore, more the difference in electronegativity, more will be the ionic nature of the resulting compound. The metals of groups 1, 2 and 13 have a tendency to lose their valence electrons. So they combine with the non-metals of Groups 15, 16 and 17, which have a tendency to gain electron(s) and form ionic bonds. Note : Group 1 elements are most electr- opositive, ie, they are metallic in nature. Their metallic nature increases down the group. Group 17 elements are most electronegative, Fluorine is the most electronegative element. Thus, caesium fluoride CsF is the most ionic compound, Ifthe electron affinity value med easily, ie., @ higher Bonds formed between metals and non-metals are ionic or electrovalent. Why are lonic Compounds Stable ? Tonic compounds are formed by ions but there also exists a repulsive force between ions for like charges. Since the electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges is much higher, it makes the ionic compounds stable. Examples of electrovalent (ionic) compounds. NaCl (Sodium chloride) MgCl, (Magnesium chloride) CaO (Calcium oxide) KBr (Potassium Bromide) CaCl, (Calcium chloride) 22structures of some ele: 2 2.22 Compounds clrovalent 1, odin chloride (Nach The electronic configuration of a sodium atom jg 208 He I has one electron in excess of the gqectronic configuration of the nearest noble ya eon, (2-8) Therefore, an atom of sodium shows q tendency t© giN€ UP the electron from its ontermost ell. SO aS to acquire a configuration of neon, stable Stable electronic Na - le > Nat es 2.8) atom cation However, afer giving up one electron, the sodium atom is no more electrically neutral, 11 has cleven protons in its nucleus but only ten electrons revolving around it. Therefore, it has a net positive charge of +1. This positively charged atom is called ‘sodium ion and is written as Na* and its electronic configuration resembles that of the noble gas neon. The properties of Na are different from Nat, ‘Table 2.2 Comparison of the properties of sodium atom and sodium ion Property Sodium Sodium ‘atom (Na) cation (Na*) Colour Silvery white | Colourless Toxicity Poisonous | Non-poisonous Chemical action | Very active | Inactive Valence Incomplete | Complete shell ‘outermost shell | outermost shell Electrical state | Neutral Positively charged Existence ‘Combined state | Independent existence The electronic configuration of chlorine is 2, 8, 7. It has an electronic configuration with one electron less than that of the nearest noble gas, argon 2, 8, 8). Therefore, the chlorine atom shows a tendency to acquire an electron to attain octet in its outermost shell, Cl + le + cr (2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8) atom anion An atom of chlorine is electrically neutral, as it contains 17 protons in its nucleus and 17 electrons revolving around it. But, after acquiring an electron from the sodium atom, the chlorine atom does not remain electrically neutral, t has one electron more than the number of protons in its nucleus and therefore has charge of ~1 represented as Cl be. chloride jon, The properties of chlorine ator are different from its ion, ihe 2.8 Compariuon of the properties of ciitorine a 8 chloride fon Property Chlorine atom | Chloride anion (ch cry Colour Yellowish green | Colourless (as Ch, gas) _| Toxicity isonous Non-poisonous Odour focating Odourless ‘Chemical action | Very active Inactive Valence Incomplete Complete shell outermost shetl_| outermost shell Electrical state | Neutral Negatively charged Existence Not independent | Independent Chloride ion has an octet of electrons in its outermost shell, and its electronic configuration resembles that of the noble gas argon (Fig. 2.1). Thus, when an atom of sodium combines with an atom of chlorine, one electron is transferred from the sodium atom to the chlorine atom, resulting in the formation of a sodium chloride molecule. Chlorine atom 2,87) Sodium atom 2, 8,1) Nave fi Ne |Coutomt| forces Sodium ion Q,8) Chloride ion 2, 8,8) Fig, 2.1 Orbit structure of electrovalent bonding in sodium chloride, The cation Na* and anion Cl- are attracted towards each other, due to opposite electrical charge 23or coulomb force existing between them and form an ionic compound, Electron dot symbol (Lewis symbol) The clectron dot symbol for an atom consists of the symbol of the clement surrounded by dots representing only the outermost shell electrons. The paired electrons are represented by a pair of dots, whereas the unpaired clectron in the outermost orbit is represented by a single dot Example : Electron dot symbol of Hydrogen is H and of Oxygen i Symbols other than dots, such as circles and ‘can be used to distinguish between the electrons ifferent atoms in a molecule, for example : “Ammonia (NH) can be represented as crosses of Electron dot structure ‘of NaCl ene 4 Nat + CI or NaCl 2. Magnesium: chloride (MgCl) valence electrons of magnesium 2 and that of chlorine (atomic icquires a stable The number of v (atomic number 12} number 17) is 7. Magnesium atom a configuration of 8 electrons by losing two electrons fom its outermost shell (one each 10 each atom of sium chlorine) and thus becomes a positive magne ion, Me™. Me - 20 > Ms* 28,2) 02,8) ‘atom cation However, each chlorine atom, which contains 7 electrons in its outermost shell, can accept only 1 of the 2 electrons donated by a magn Therefore, for each magnesium atom forming a jon, there must be two chlorine atoms magnesium i to form two chloride ions. el) tea 2c 2,8,7) (2, 8, 8) 2.Cl atoms 2 chloride anions Bi Olic- J G TWO CHLORIDE (on (2,8. 6) <@ © MAGNESIUM ‘ATOM 2.8.2) ») 1wo CHLORINE ‘ATOMS {2.0.71 "MAGHESIUM 10H (2. 8) J formation of magnesium 22° ani vee (WIth aleces Hie crus, the ratio of magnesium 10 chloride fons hloride must be 1: 2, $0 the in magnesium | tila of the compound magnesium molecular form Uhloride is MgCl; (Fi: 2.2). Electron dot structur| chloride ce ‘ fe of magnesium 3 Mg 2[3Cls] 3. Calcium oxide (CaO) ‘The number of valence electrons of a calcium ‘atom (atomic number 20) is 2, and that of an oxygen s 6, ie. oxygen requires 2 electrons to attain of oxygen, each calcium atom loses its 2 valence electrons to one oxygen atom (Fig. 2.3). As a result, the calcium atom forms a calcium ion with charge +2 (Ca?*), and the oxygen ‘atom forms an oxide ion with charge -2 (0%). Since only one oxygen atom is needed to accept the 2 valence electrons donated by a calcium atom, the formula of calcium oxide is CaO and not Ca,0>. atom i octet. In the presence Ca-2e 7 Catt (2,8, 8, 2) (2, 8, 8) stom cation O+2% 9 of 2,6) 2.8) atom aNO} Coinlomt force 20,9) (2.0) Ca - lon O-on nea of formation of calcium oxide (Cath) electron dot structure of calcium oxide ca $88 scat [268 In the formation of an electrovatent bond, the transfer of eleetronis) is involved, The clectropositive atom undergoes oxidation, ighile the electronegative atom undergoes reduction. This is known as REDOX PROCESS. For example : Formation of sodium chloride : Sodium chloride is formed by the combination of sodium and chlorine. 2Na + Cl, > 2.NaCl ‘The reaction can be written as two half reactions: 2Na — 2Na* + 2e“(Oxidation) Cl, + 2€ — 2Cl (Reduction) Oxidation ——— > 2Na + Cl, 2Na* + 2Cl- (Redox Reaction) eee Reduction ‘Note : Oxidation and reduction always occur simultaneously because the electron(s) lost by the reducing agent must be gained by the oxidising agent. For example : Oxidised FeO; + 2Al — 2Fe +Al,0; Oxidising Reducing agent agent Reduced Inthis reaction, Aluminium acting as a reducing agent reduces Iron (II1) oxide to Iron, This is reduction reaction. Fe? + 3e~ 9 Fe (Reduction) At the same time, Aluminium is oxidised t0 oxide by the oxidising agent fron (111) | ‘and this is an oxidation reaction Al Je = AVY (Oxidation Thus, the net reaction is a redox reaction Mt can be inferred from the above example that an oxidising agent is an acceptor of electron(s) and a reducing agent is a donor of electron(s). 1, How do atoms attain noble gas configuration 7 2. Define (a) a chemical bond, () a covalent bond. 3, What are the conditions for the formation of an electrovalent bond 7 4. Anatom X has three electrons more than the noble G25 configuration. What type of ion will it form ? Write the formula of its (i) sulphate (i) nitrate (ii) phosphate (iv) carbonate (v) hydroxide. 5. Mention the basic tendency of an atom which makes it to combine with other atoms. 6. The element X has the electronic configuration 2, 8, 18, 8, 1. Without identifying X, (a) predict the sign and charge on a simple ion of X (0) write if X will be an oxigising agent or a reducing agent and why. | 7. In the formation of the compound XY, an atom X gives fone electron to each Y atom. What is the nature of bond in XY, ? Draw the electron dot structure of tis compound. 8. An atom X has 28,7 electrons in its shell It combines with ¥ having 1 electron in its outermost shell (a) What type of bond will be formed between X and Y? (b) Write the formula of the compound formed. 9. Explain with the help of ionic equation and electron dot structural diagram the formation of the following electrovalent compounds. | () Nac Gi) MgCl ii) Cao 40. Compare : {a) sodium atom and sodium ion | (b) chlorine atom and chloride ion, with respect to ()) atomic structure, (ji) electrical state, (ii) chemical action, (iv) toxicity 11, The electronic configuration of Fluoride ion is the same {a that of a noon atom, What is the diference between the two ? ‘State which of the following are reduction reaction and which are oxidation () Po Poe + 20- (li) Fe ~0- -+ Fem (li) AB +e" A2% (iv) Cus Cue (b) an electrovalent bond. 12, 19. What do you understand by redox reactions?14. Explain : (I). oxidation and reduction in torms of loss or gain of electrons, (i) Formation of electrovalont compound is a redox reaction, 18. Divide the following redox roactions into oxidation and reduction half reactions, ( Zn¢ Poe Zn? 4 P (i) 2+ Cut Zn? 4 Cu (ii) Cl, +28 Br, + 2Ct (iv) Sn 4 Deg? + Sn 6 Hg, () 20u + cus cue 16. Potassium (at No. 19) and chlorine (at No. 17) react 10 form a compound. Explain on the basis of electronic, concept () oxidation oxidising agent 2.3 COVALENT (MOLECULAR) BOND The chemical bond that is formed benween vo combining atoms by mutual sharing of one or ted a covalent (or (i) reduction (iv) reducing agent. more pairs of electrons is cal @ molecular) bond and the compound formed due 10 this bond is called a covalent compound. Jecule formed due to the sharing of x1 bond) is called a covalent molecule. The 0 ns (covalent The atoms of non-metals usually have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outermost shell (except carbon which has 4 and hydrogen which has just 1 electron in the outermost shell). The atoms of such elements do not favour the loss of its electrons due to energy considerations and thus the transfer of electrons is not possible. Therefore, this atom can complete its octet only by mutually sharing one or more pairs of electrons. Each atom contributes equal number of electron(s). So, whenever a non-metal combines with another non-metal (10 attain stable configuration), the sharing of electrons takes place between their atoms and a covalent bond is formed. For example, hydrogen is a non-metal and chlorine is also a non-metal. When hydrogen combines with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride (HCI), the sharing of electrons takes place between hydrogen and chlorine atoms and a covalent bond is formed. — It should be noted that a covalent bong also be formed between wo MOMS OF the same yg ple, (wo chlorine ators comp) paring, OF electrons 10 form, (Cy) and A covalent bong | two chlorine atoms, me together by the sh chlorine molec ule formed between the a lent bonds are of following three types jalent bond. 2. Double covalent bong Coval 1. Single ed 3, Triple covalent bond ‘A single covalent bond is formed by the sharing of one pair of electrons between the atom, sharin tn contributing, one electron. It is denote by putting a short line (—) between the (Wo atoms, Molecules of hydrogen, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, water, ammonia, methane and carbon tetrachloride are examples of single covalent bonds, each HH CCL H-Cl H-O-n Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen chloride Water a a I 1 H-N-H = -H-C-H ci-c—o 1 i 1 H H a ‘Ammonia Methane Carbon tetrachloride (4 singlecovalent bonds) Similarly, a double bond is formed by the sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms. ‘A double bond is actually a combination of two single bonds, so it is represented by putting two between the two atoms. short lines For example, oxygen molecule, Op, double bond between two atoms and it can be contains a written as O=O. Carbon dioxide contains two double bonds. Q: Ionic Tonic | Partly tonic-partaly | Covalent Govalen | Covalent | Covalent solid solid covalent solid | liguid viusotid | Haid | Bas Oxide > MgO AMO, ? soysoy | C0; Bonding Ionic Tae ice Covalent Covalent Conte Solid Solid Solid Solid sa valent | Toanain the sable etcionte configuration of he nearen ‘hlorine needs one electron. ‘come closer, cach contributes won and form one shared pair of electrons h ihe atoms of chlorine thus attain an — Cl] is formed between noble gas, ¢ when two chlorine atoms one elect between them. Both ‘octet, A single covalent bond [Cl the Formation of a chlorine molecule Electron dot structure Before combination Clatom — Clatom ‘After combination rc]: Git or [cl—Cl] (Cl) Single covalent (One shared pair bond of electrons [A chlorine molecule contains ‘two atoms of chlorine] Electron dot structure Before combination H H-atom + ‘After combination H—H ‘One shared pair Single covalent of electrons bond [A hydrogen molecule contains two atoms of hydrogen} HiH or | fe 2. Chlorine yolar compound) nolecule (Ne Ele ic config ic ‘ | TBtectronic configuration | Nearest noble gas shared pairs of electrons between them, Both atoms | vel ‘Argon (A) attain an octet, resulting in the formation of a triple 2.871 12,8, 8] covalent bond [N = N] between them. 3. Nitrogen molecule (Non-polar compound) Electronic configuration | Nearest noble gas yl Nitrogen (GN) Neon (Ne) (2,5) 2 8] To attain the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, nitrogen needs three electrons. When two nitrogen atoms come closer, each contributes three electrons and so they have three_ Formation of a nitrogen molecule mae Electron dot structure Before combination INE INE Neatom —— Neatom After combination Mortal sharing of thre pais of electrons INEIND or [NEN] (N,) ‘Thre shared pairs Triple covalent of electrons bond [A nitrogen molecule contains two atoms of nitrogen} 4, Carbon tetrachloride molecule (Non-polar compound) Electronic Nearest involved configuration noble gas Carbon CRT ‘Neon [2, 8) Chlorine C128, 7] Argon [2, 8, 8] To attain the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, carbon needs four electrons and chlorine needs one electron. When a molecule of carbon tetrachloride is to be formed, one atom of carbon shares four electron pairs, one with each of the four atoms of chlorine. Though the bond between carbon and chlorine is polar but molecule of CCl, as a whole is non-polar, as the molecule is symmetrical in shape. Formation of a carbon tetrachloride molecule Electron dot structure Before combination cl (cel) fle covalent bonds One shared pair of electrons with each chlorine atom [One molecule of carbon tetrachloride contains five atoms in all ie. one atom of carbon and four atoms of chlorine) polar compound) Nearest Atoms involved — | configuration noble gas © Carbon C1241 Neon (2.8) | Hydrogen Heli (21 To attain the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, carbon needs four electrons and Iydrogen needs one electron. When a molecule of methane is to be formed, one atom of carbon shares four electron pairs, one with each of the four atoms of hydrogen. Formation of a methane molecule Electron dot diagram Before combination Het? Coal x4 -Qetex After combination H H I He HOCH HiGSH oor T Se H H Four single covalent bonds [A methane molecule contains a total of five atoms, ie. one ‘atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen} 6. Water molecule (Polar compound) ‘Atoms Electronic Nearest involved configuration noble gas Hydrogen ro) Helium (2) Oxygen OR Neon [2, 8] To attain the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, hydrogen needs one electron and oxygen needs two electrons. In the case of a water molecule, each of the two hydrogen atoms shares an electron pair with the oxygen atom such that hydrogen acquire: duplet configuration and oxygen an octet, result in the formation of two single covalent bonds. a 29Formation of a water molecule Electron dot structure Before combination Hx + De 4 aH Heatom —O-atom H-atom After combination } Wor H-G—H (H,0) One shared pair of Two single covalent electrons on each side bonds 1One molecule of water contains a total of three atoms, ie. onc atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen] Ammonia molecule (Pe compound) Atoms: Electronic Nearest involved | configuration noble gas | Nitrogen WNI25) Neon [2, 8] Hydrogen 1 Helium (2) To attain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, nitrogen needs three electrons and ia is (0 be formed, one ‘ctron pairs, one with When a molecule of ant atom of nitrogen shares three le cach of the three atoms of hydrogen Formation of a = steetron dot structure in ammonia molecule Before combination After combination ul W ae OR I HENSH H-N-H Three single One shared pair of covalent bonds electrons with each hydrogen atom [The ammonia molecule contains a total of four atoms, Le. one ‘atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen] hydrogen needs one electron. 2.4 PROPERTIES AND COMPARISON OF ELECTR OVALENT AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS are ions ions, which cannot be separated Electrovalent compounds Covalent compounds oH Property | Reason Property Reason 1a 1, Nature | 1. Nature (i) Treirconstiwentparicles| These have strong electrostatic (i) Theieconstituent particles | They have weak forces forces of attraction between their are molecules. of attraction between their molecules. (ii) These are gases or liquids ‘These are non-volatile, with high boiling and high melting points. attraction between the oppositely charged ions, soa large amount of energy is required to break the | strong bonding force between ions. (iy They are hard solids consisting of fons. easly or sot solids. 2, Boiling point and melting | 2, Bolling point and melting point | point ‘There exists a strong force of | These are volatile, with tow | They have weak forces of attraction between the boiling and low melting points. binding molecules, thus less cenergy is required to break the force of bonding. 3. Electricity conducting nature (They do not conduct | Electrostatic forces of attraction electricity in the solid | between ions inthe solid state are state very strong. (ii) They are good conductors | ‘These forces weaken in fused of electri in the fsed | sate or in soation sate, Hee, or in aqueous state. fons become mobile, 3. Electricity conducting nature ‘They are non-conductors of | Due tothe absence of free ions. electricity in solid, molten or ‘aqueous slate, 30,isoxiation 4 valent compounds ae Beet ions In soton cova Bec til thee ten sate these fons Water being a polar covatent compound decreases. the lectrostatie forces of att resulting in free io solution NaCl — Nar(ag) + C1 (aq) heir ions dissociate and migrate when an electric ‘Curent passes through them in their molten oF aqueous solution sate. 6.8 ons dissociate in water or in ‘molten state Covalent compos do fn have fons 4. Tontsation tn solution (On passing electric current non-polar covalent compounds do not ionic, Some of the covalent compounds are polar in nature They lonice inthe solutions und can actas an clectolyte.e-. HCL + 11,0 —= 11,0" + Cr Polar covalent molecules form ons in their vatations ‘The dissoctation of molecules imo ions does not take place in covalent molecules Covalent compounds do not have fons, s0 they do not dissociate yac== Nat + Cr 4 Flectrovalent compounds * Covalent compounds are Sea ae ees §, Solubility 5. Solubility ‘These are soluble in water | As waters a polar compound, it |" These are insoluble in water | As organic solvents are tut insoluble in organic | decreases the electrostatic forces | ut dissolve inorganic | non-polar, hence, these irate ofattaction, resultingin freeions | solvents, dissolve in non-polar covalent in aqueous solution. Hence they ‘compounds dissolve, (6. Rate of reaction ‘They. show rapid speed of chemical reactions in aqueous solutions. ‘Since free ions are easily formed in different solutions, they unite very fast forming compounds. 6. Rate of reaction ‘They show slow speed of ‘chemical reactions in aqueous solutions. In covalent molecules, old bonds are broken and new bonds are formed, thus the reaction is slow between covalent compounds. 2.5 EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON ELECTRO- VALENT AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS Experiment : Arrange an electrolytic cell as shown in Fig. 2.4. The electric circuit contains a 6-volt battery, an ammeter bulb and platinum electrodes connected in series. 6 VOLT BATTERY BULB ANODE — CATHODE ELECTROLYTIC—| WATER OR cen —% ‘SOME LIQUID (Asa convention, on a diagram, anode is shown on left and cathode on right), Fig. 24 Effects of electric current in different solutions. Take alcohol, chloroform, benzene, petrol and the solutions of sugar, magnesium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, copper sulphate in oo separate beakers and dip the platinum electrodes in them for a moment, one by one, and note the change in ammeter reading. Observations : When the current is passed in the solutions of magnesium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and copper sulphate the bulb glows. This shows that electrovalent compounds allow electric current to pass through them Thus, ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in molten or aqueous states due 10 free mobile ions. When the current is passed through the solutions of covalent compounds, ie. distilled water, sugar solution, alcohol, chloroform, benzene and petrol the bulb does not glow, This shows that they do not conduct electricity. This happens because solutions of covalent compounds contain only molecules and no ions.10. 1. Intext Questions What are the conditions necessary for the formation . Draw electron dot diagram and structure of 1. What is the difference between : of covalent molecules ? Elements A, B and C have atomic numbors 17,19 and 10 respectively (a) State which one is: () @ non-metal (i) a metal, (ii) chemically inen ? (©) Write down the formula of the compound formed by two of the above elements, (@) nitrogen molecule (&) magnesium chloride (c) methane (2017) {2) joni compounds and polar covalent compounds, (©) ionic compounds and covalent compounds, (¢) apolar covalent compound and a non-polar covalent ‘compound ? A solid is crystalline, has a high melting point and is water soluble. Describe the nature of the si. What do you understand by dipole (polar) molecule ? Explain it by taking hydrogen chloride as an example. (2) Explain the bonding in methane molecule using ‘electron dot structure, (2015) (0) Methane molecule is non-polar molecule. Explain. Give the characteristic properties of : (2) electrovalent compounds, (b) covalent compounds. (a). State the type of bond formed, when the combining atoms have : () ze10 EN. difference (ii) large EN. difference (b) State the type of bond formed, and draw Lewis structure of () water (calcium oxide Explain the following : (a) Electrovalent compounds conduct electricity (b) Electrovalent compounds have a high melting point ‘and boiling point while covalent compounds have low metting and boling points. (€) Electrovalent compounds dissolve in water whereas covalent compounds do not. (a) Electrovalent compounds are usually hard crystals. {e) Polar covalent compounds conduct electricity () Water is a polar covalent molecule ? Elements X, ¥ and Z have atomic numbers 6, 9 and 12 respectively. Which one : (@) forms an anion, (©) forms a cation, {c) state type of bond between Y and Z and give its ‘molecular formula. (i) small E.N. difference 1a an oloctrovatont compound, CCl, as a | 12, Taking MgCl, | 0 tour dilforences bolieen | covalont compound. giv ‘loctrovatont and covalent compounds | 13, Potassium ehlorio Is an olocrovatont compound, white hydrogen chloride is a covatont compound. Ou bh ‘ondets oletvty In thoir aquoous sotutions Explain, | 4, (a) Draw tho olactron dot structuro of covalont compound mathano (non potat) and HCI (par) ang giv two eilforonco botweon them. {by Namo two compounds that aro covalont when akan puro but produce fons when dissolved In water. {@) For each compound mentioned above give the formulae of ions formed in aquoous solution. 15,_ An element M bums in oxygen o frm an joni bond MO. rte the formula ofthe compounds formed if this element ig: mado to combine with chine and sulphur separately. 46. Element A has 2 electrons in its M shell. Element B has atomic number 7. {a) Write equations to show how A and B form ions, (0) Bis a diatomic gas, wite the equation forthe cirect combination of A and B to form a compound. {@) Ifthe compound formed between A and B is melted ‘and an electric current is passed through the molten compound, the element A will be obtained at the 1 NG B atthe n-ne Of the electrolytic ca 17. Element M forms a chloride with the formula MClz which is solid with high melting point. M would most likely be inthe group in Which nnn 6S placed. [@Na_ Mg C)AL_() SH 18. Complte the following : ‘Sodium | Phosphorus] Carbon Formula of chloride Nature of bonding Physical state of chloride 19. Compound X consists of molecules. Choose the letter corresponding to the correct answer from the options A, B, C and D given below (i) The type of bonding in X will be ‘A. lonie B, electrovalent C. covalent D. molecular (ll) X is likely to have a : ‘A, low melting point and high boiling point, B. high melting point and fow boiling point, . low melting point and low boiling point, D. high melting point and high boiling point (ii) In the liquid state, x will ‘A. become ionic, B. be an electrolyte, C. conduct electricity, D. not conduct electricity. 3226 COORDINATE BOND «bond formed between two atoms by sharing sir of eleetons. provided entirely by one of th mis but shared by both is roth is called « dinate bond oF dative bond, eee pining e.g: Hydronium (1304 ion and ammonium ion ini) contain coordinate bond. 6.1 Conditions for the formation 26°" Soordinate bond st {One of the two atoms must have at least one lone pair of electrons, e.g., ammonia (NH. water (H,0). a ‘A pair of electrons which is not shared with any ‘ther atom is known as the lone pair of electrons. Refer Fig. 2.5 This lone pair of electrons is provided to the other atom for the formation of coordinate bond. (ji) Another atom should be short of at least a pair of electrons, ¢.g., Hydrogen ion (H*). ‘A coordinate bond can also be defined as a bond formed between an ion and an atom of a polar covalent molecule with one or more lone pairs of electrons. Note : A coordinate bond has properties of both covalent and ionic bonds. Therefore, it is also called dative or co-ionic bond. The atom which provides the electron pair for the formation of a coordinate bond is known as the DONOR and the atom or ion sharing the donated electron pair is known as the ACCEPTOR. Coordinate bond is represented by “>”. 2.6.2 Formation of H,O* ion and lone pair effect of oxygen atom Water contains two hydrogen atoms and one ‘oxygen atom. The hydrogen atom has one electron in its valence shell while the oxygen atom has six electrons in its valence shell. He am Lewis structure of Hydrogen Lewis structure of Oxygen Two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with oxygen atom to form a water molecule, >——— ee suimico Pans, Dot diagram of water molecule SHARED PAIN LONE,PAIR —_SHAFIED PAIF Lone Pain Fig. 2.5 Covalent boning in water molecule The two unshared pairs of electrons known as lone pairs of electrons, do not participate in the bond formation in water molecule. These lone pairs repel the bond pairs (shared pairs) and thus the shape of the water molecule becomes wedge (A) shaped. The O-H bonds in a water molecule are polarised due to the large difference in the electronegativity values of the oxygen and the hydrogen atoms. (The oxygen atom has an electronegativity value of 35, while that of the hydrogen atom is 2:1). Oxygen has higher electronegativity so it attains slight negative (>) charge as it pulls the shared pair of electrons towards itself, while hydrogen atoms attain slight positive (5*) charge. Therefore, a & molecule of water due to these charges is a polar molecule and is ys.’ ye represented as shown alongside. When an acid is added to water, strong dipole interaction (attraction between slight positive and slight negative charge) occurs between the polar water molecules and the polar acid molecules. As a result of such a dipole interaction, the hydrogen ion gets released from the polar bonds of the acid molecules. ner 295 He + ce The hydrogen ion spontaneously adds on to one of the two lone pairs of electrons of the oxygen atom of the water molecule forming coordinate bond. HSO?H + HY > |HGrH waren wonocen H ‘on yonONUA HL G3)Addition of released H* ion to a lone pair of electrons of the oxygen atom of the polar water molecule leads to the formation of a hydronium ion Hydronium ion is hydrated proton W410 = 10° Proton. Water Hydnium ion 1 Covatent bond H-O 1 —4—Coondinate bond Structure of hydronium fon Hydronium ion has a lone pair, two single covalent bond and one coordinate bond. 2.6.3 Formation of Ammonium ion (NH,*) ‘and Lone Pair Effect of Nitrogen Atom atom has one valence electron, 4 ammonia, cach of the thee hydrogen atoms. gq honded to the nitrogen atom bY A pai OF share cleetrons. (One electron from the hydrogen atom ang ‘one from the nitrogen). hydrogen <—— Lone pair NSH ee &——Shared pair i he nitrogen atom in ammonia is left with Th Ione pair of electrons. This ammonia molecule combines with hydrogen ion H*, which has no electrons in its outermost orbit in such a way that the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom is shared by the hydrogen ion. The latter thus acquires the helium configuration. This bond which is formed between the nitrogen atom in ammonia and the hydrogen ion is a coordinate bond. Acmocia melecsle ‘The nitrogen atom in: When ammonium chloride NH,Clis formed, cation NH; ( ‘Thus ammonium chloride isa good example bond. Examples of compounds having : (i) Electrovalent and covalent bonds are NaOH, CaCO,, et. i) Covalent and coordinate bonds is sulphuric acid. 2.6.4 Formation of hydroxyl lon (OH) : The hydroxyl ion or hydroxide ion is formed when one hydrogen ion (H*) is removed from the water molecule. H,0 + Ht + OH- When Ht is removed from water molecule, the shared pair of electrons remains with oxygen as Ione pair of electrons (ACCEPTOR) and forms a coordinate bond, O identical. The linkage forms an ammonium ion having a single positive charge. fhaving 3 covalent and one coordinate bond) and anion CI-are attracted Nitrogen atom has five valence electrons and Formation of NH ion : + g E + H H ggH Ze peor ‘ 58 | ek od * or H + HO H ‘NiH Hl i ul H sytem 60) Laggan er ‘an ammonia molecule contains alone pair of electrons. tis a DONOR. The hydrogen ion (H") accepts that Ince this bond is formed, all four N ~ H bonds become towards each other. Due to electrical charge existing between them ionic bond is formed. ‘of compound having all the three types of bonds ée., covalent, coordinate and ionic oxygen is more electronegative and thus hydroxyl ion has negative charge. H Ox > H+ E xu] Dot diagram -n] Structure of hydroxyl ion> jonisation of water water molecnte contains WO hydrogen atoms Sreoxgeet atom. A positive hydrogen fon (I) ar Pree! when’ water jonises, a H,0 + Ht + OH nis Ht ion is transferred from one water ale to the Oxygen atom of another water , forming hydronium ion (HO), Ht + H;,0 «> 10+ 1, fine a coonfinate bond and pve the condi formation. of electrons. (2018) {4 State the type of bonding in the following molecules (a) water, (b) calcium oxide, (©) hydroxyl ion, (d)_ methane, (¢) ammonium ion, (Q)_ ammonium chloride 44, (@) Draw an electron dot diagram for the formation of each of the following = (i) Hydronium ion, Gi) Ammonium ion, 43, What do you understand by lone p: (2018) Git) Hydroxyl ion. State the type of bonding present in them. (b) Give an example in cach ease Co-ordinate bond compound, Solid covalent compound, Gaseous polar compound, Gaseous non polar compound, Liquid non polar compound, Compound with electrovalent and covalent bond, ‘Compound with all three types of bonds. wit) (a) How many atoms of each kind are present in the following molecules : calcium oxide, chlorine, water, carbon tetrachloride ? (b) How many electrons are required or released by each atom mentioned in (a) to attain the nearest noble gas configuration? 6. Complete the following : (a) When the nuclei of two different reacting atoms are of mass, then a bond so formed is called covalent bond equal, unequal, polar, non-polar). (b) In case of non-polar covalent bond, the covalent bond is formed in the wm of atoms and shared electrons are ..... distributed (corner, middle, equally, unequally). molecule, Thus, yO" and OH ions are formed by water o+ Woe Wor + OF fydronium jon trydtonide ts Ore Were [n- Gon i] \ \ 1 i HW H ins (©) Ionic oF electrovalent compounds do not conduct electricity in their. __ state (fased/solid). (d) The ions in __ compounds are held very strongly due to strong . forces (electrovalent, covalent, electromagnetic. electrostatic) (2018) (a) Blectrons are getting added to an element Y (i) is Y getting oxidized or reduced ? ii) which electrode will Y migrate to during the process of electrolysis ? (b) Acids dissolve in water and produce positively ‘charged ions. Draw the structure of these positive ions. () Explain why Carbon tetrachloride does not dissolve in water. (a) Elements Q and $ react together to form an ionic compound. Under normal condition, which physical state will the compound QS exist in? (b) Can Q and S, both be metals? Justify your answer. (©) The property which is characteristic of an cleetrovalent compound is that : A. itis easily vaporized, B. it has a high melting point, C. itis a weak electrolyte, D. it often exists as a liqui (a) When a metal atom becomes an ion A B. it gains electrons and is reduced, C. it gains electrons and is oxidized, D. it loses electrons and is reduced. a) In the formation of magnesium chloride (by disect combination between magnesium and chlorine), name the substance that is oxidized and the substance that is reduced, it loses electrons and is oxidized, (b) What are the terms defined below ? (i) A bond formed by a shared pair of electrons, cach bonding atom contributing one electron to the pair.(ii)_A bond formed by a shared pair of electrons with both electrons coming from the same atom: 2009 (a) The one which is composed of all the three kinds of bond fionic, covalent and coordinate bond] A. Sodium chloride B. Ammonia C. Carbon tetrachloride D. Ammonium chloride (b) Draw the structural formula of carbon tetrachloride and state the type of bond present in it, 2010 (a) Select the correct answer from A, B, C and D — Metals lose electrons during ionization — this change is called A. Oxidation B. Reduction C. Redox D. Displacement (b) Select the right answer — (i) Sodium chloride — covalent bond / ionic bond / covalent and coordinate bond. Gi) Ammonium ion — covalent bond / ionic bond / covalent and coordinate bond. (iii) Carbon tetrachloride — covalent bond / ionic bond / covalent and coordinate bond, 2011 (a) (@ In covalent compounds, the bond is formed due to - (sharing/transfer] of electrons. (ii) Electrovalent compounds have a .. [low/high} boiling point. (iii) A molecule of . contains a triple bond. (hydrogen, ammonia, nitrogen. (b) By drawing an electron dot diagram, show the lone Pair effect leading to the formation of — ammonium ion from ammonia gas and hydrogen ion (©) Give reasons — Hydrogen chloride can be termed as a polar covalent compound, 2012 (a) Draw an electron dot diagram of hydronium ion. State the type of bonding present in it. (2018) (b) There are three elements E, F, G with atomic number 19, 8 and 17 respectively. Give the molecular formula of the compound formed between E and G and state the type of chemical bond in this compound. 2013 (a) A chemical term for. A bond formed by a shared pair of electrons with both electrons coming from the same atom, 7 (b) Among the compounds identify the compoung has all three bonds fionic, covalent and coordi bond]. ig A. Ammonia B. Ammonium chloride C. Sodium hydroxide D. Calcium chloride (6) State which is not a typical property of an ion compound. A. High mop. B. Conducts electricity in molten and the aqueous sie water C. Are insoluble D. Exist as oppos state. (@) Compare carbon tetrachloride and sodium chloride with regard to solubility in water and electrical conductivity. 2014 (a) ‘Compound *X’ consists of only molecules. have — A. Crystalline hard structure B. A low mp. and low b.p C. An ionic bond D. A strong force of attraction between its molecules will (b) The molecule which contains a triple covalent bond is A. ammonia B. methane C. water D. nitrogen (©) Give one word or phrase for the following : Formation of ions from molecules. (2018) (@) Give a reason why covalent compounds exist as gases, liquids or soft solids. 2016 (a) The following table shows the electronic configuration of the elements W, X, Y, Z. Element Ww x_ [yy [z Electronic 281 /[287[25 | a configurations Answer the following questions based on the table above : (i) What type of Bond is formed between 1. WandX = 2. Yandz (ii) What is the formula of the compound formed between : LX and Z 2. Wand X - oo s——SsSS— 36