CEW 555
WATER AND
TOPIC 2 WASTEWATER
WATER DEMAND ENGINEERING
INFRASTRUCTURE
LECTURER: SALINA BINTI ALIAS (PhD)
LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
• Calculate and analyze the population estimation, population
equivalent and water demand
• Determine the factors effecting water demand
• Assess water demand and water consumption
TYPES OF DEMAND
Domestic
houses, hotels, sanitary, culinary. bathing etc. from 75 to 380 lpcd (include air conditioning, watering
of garden, washing cars etc.)
Industrial (Wet or dry)
factories such as textiles, canning, etc.
Commercial
restaurants, stores, business premises, etc .
Institutional
water furnished for public building. schools. Flushing street and fire fighting
Agricultural
water use for irrigating purposes.
Public
public parks, streets, drain flushing, fires.
Non revenue water (NRW)
leakages, pipe burst, error in meter reading, unauthorized connection etc.
PROJECTED CONSUMPTION OF WATER
FOR VARIOUS PURPOSE IN THE YEAR 2000
Water lpcd % of usage
consumption
Domestic 300 44
Industrial 160 24
Commercial 100 15
Public 60 9
NRW 50 8
Total 670 100
Source: McGhee (Water Supply and Sewage)
FACTORS AFFECTING CONSUMPTION
Types of connection
distance to household, degree of enforcement of usage, restrictions.
Queuing, yard connection or house connection.
Economic
income, use of appliances, cars, charges (tariff structure-penalty or reduction
for high consumption), pool, garden, diet, etc.
Climate
yard irrigation, personal bathing, heating of water, air conditioning, yard
watering.
FACTORS AFFECTING CONSUMPTION
Social
customs, family size, religion
Continuity of supply
extra wastage if intermittent, season, day of the week
Pressure in mains
condition on pipes, adequacy of supply, public awareness, control of district pressure,
etc.
Industrial use
types of industry, recycling, alternative sources
Availability
flow rate, hourly, daily, alternative sources.
METHODS OF DETERMINING DEMAND
Using figures derived elsewhere
Using meter records (if all connections are metered)
Installing meters in a sample
Metering zones (subtract minimum night flows)
Diaries (Need consumer cooperation, confidence)
METER READING MAY BE MISLEADING
Meter inaccurate –old, poor water quality (grit), under reading of
low flows.
Vandalism –jamming, reverse, magnets
Intermittent flows- air causes fast rotation, damage
Unaccounted for water must be considered - fire-fighting,
flushing of sewers and streets, illegal connections, leaks.
PLANNING HORIZON AND STAGE
DEVELOPMENT
Study of water demand for urban water supply scheme covers
at least for 20 year
Planning horizon more than 20 years may introduce a great
deal of inaccuracy.
Projection made at least at 5 years interval
Implementation of construction of facilities may be staged or
phased in 2 or more stages.
WATER DEMAND ESTIMATION
Population
Per capita consumption
Service factor
Design Factor
Additional water demand factor
BASIC FORMULA FOR WATER DEMAND
ESTIMATION
Wdn = (Pn x C x F)+ Dn
Where.
Wdn = Water demand at the end of year n
Pn = Projected population at the end of year n
C = Per capita consumption at the end of year n
F = Service factor at the end of year n
Dn = Additional demand at the end of year n
Per capita consumption under this heading is deemed to include normal commercial and industrial use,
domestic use and unaccounted for water losses. If there is provision in the development plan for
specific industrial areas.Additional water demand for such use should be considered.
SERVICE FACTOR
Potential percentage of population to be served.
0.9 mean that 90% the distribution system covers adequately
90% of the area and population in that area can get easy access to public
water supply. It does not necessarily mean that 90% of the population have
service connections.
In estimating the water demand the existing service factor for urban and rural
areas should be assumed for year zero and service factor should be
increased at 5 years interval until it reaches the target service factor in year
20.
Population Served = Service factor x Total Population
SERVICE FACTOR
DESIGN FACTOR
Usage Factor
Domestic 2.5
Commercial / school 2.5
Light Industries 1.5
Industries 1.0
FIRE DEMAND
FIRE DEMAND
Problem 1
In 2010, the population of a city was 50,000 people with average daily
demand of 350 lcd. The community lived in 2 blocks of buildings with
ordinary construction. Each floor has an area of 1000 m2 and a height
of 6 storeys. By applying suitable coefficient and 6 hours fire flow
duration, estimate the maximum water demand. Assume that
maximum domestic flow is 1.8 times the average flow.
SOLUTION
Maximum daily demand
= (1.8) x 350 lcd
= 630 lcd x 50,000 people
= 3.15 x 107 ld
Fire flow
= 18(1) x (2 x 6 x 1000 x 10.76)1/2
= 6468 gal/min
= 3.53 x 107 ld
For 6 hours fire flow
= 3.53 x 107 ld x (6/24)
= 0.883 x 107 ld
To maintain for 6 hours water usage during fire, maximum water
demand
= (3.15 x 107 ld) + (0.883 x 107 ld)
= 4.033 x 107 ld
FACTORS AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH
Birth rate (number of birth)
Death rate/ Mortality rate
Migration
POPULATION PROJECTION
POPULATION PROJECTION
Arithmetic Increase Method
Geometric Increase Method
Incremental Increase Method
Decreasing Rate of Increase Method
Graphical
Comparison
POPULATION PROJECTION
Arithmetic Increase Method
Assumption –the rate of population is constant.
Validity – checked by determining the growth of community
Only appropriate for short term forecasting
Pn = Pi + nI
Pn = number of population on the n year
Pi = number of population of the current year
n = number of decade (1 decade = 10 years)
I = Average population growth per decade
POPULATION PROJECTION
Geometric Increase Method
Also known as uniform percentage method
Assumption –the rate of increase is proportional to the population
Method is suitable for developing areas or cities
Pn = Pi (1 + i/100)n
Pn = number of population on the n year
Pi = number of population of the current year
n = number of decade (1 decade = 10 years)
i = Average population growth per decade
POPULATION PROJECTION
Increment Increase Method
is a combination of arithmetic and geometric methods. The equation used to
estimate the population
Pn = Pi + n(I + m)
Pn = number of population on the n year
P = number of population of the current year
n = number of decade (1 decade = 10 years)
I = Average population growth per decade
m = average incremental increase per decade
POPULATION PROJECTION
Decreasing Rate of Increase Method
Use to predict the population for a city where the growth rate will be decreased as
t becomes densely populated.
𝑖−𝑘 n
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑖 (1 + )
100
Pn = number of population on the n year
P = number of population of the current year
n = number of decade (1 decade = 10 years)
K = decrease rate of increase per decade
POPULATION PROJECTION
Graphical Method
Also known as curvilinear method
Involves the graphical projection of the past population
growth curve and continuing the trends of the historical
population
The common variant of this method is by comparing the
projected growth of other cities of large size.
The city chosen should be as similar as possible with the
studied one
POPULATION PROJECTION
Comparison Method
Also known as ratio method
The method base on assumption that the ratio of the
population of a city being studied to that of the large group
will continue to change in the future in the same manner hat
has occurred in the past
PROBLEM 2
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE
Data in the following table shows the population of a city from the year
of 1971 to 2011. Estimate the population of the city in a year of 2041
using four (4) estimation that have learn:
Year 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population 350 000 460 000 994 000 1, 560 000 1,623 000
Year Population Increase/de % Increase/ Incremental Decrease
crease per decrease increase (m) rate of
decade (I) (i) increased
(k)
1971 350 000 - - - -
1981 460 000 110 000 31.4
1991 994 000 534 000 116.0 424 000 - 84.6
2001 1 560 000 566 000 56.9 32 000 59.1
2011 1 623 000 63 000 4.0 - 503 000 52.9
Total 1 273 000 208.3 -47 000 27.4
Averag 318 250 52.075 -15 667 9.13
e
No of decade, n = 3 decades
Arithmetic , Pn = Pi + nI = 2, 577, 750 people
Geometric, Pn = Pi(1 + i/100)n = 5, 708, 105 people
Incremental increase, Pn = Pi + n(I+m) = 2, 530, 749 people
Decreasing rate of increase, Pn = Pi(1 + (i-k/100))n = 4, 740, 514 people
POPULATION EQUIVALENTS (PE)
The PE is an estimate of the usage made of sewage facilities. It is not a
measure of population.
For residential areas the population equivalent is calculated as five per
dwelling and is a direct measurement of the population in an area.
However for commercial areas it is calculated from the floor area,
which is considered to be proportional to the number of people using
a premises during the day. In this case it does not reflect the
population living in an area.
The following table shows how the PE is calculated.
The PE may be converted to a flow rate using a simple formula such as set out in Malaysian Standards 1228 (MS1228).
Type of Establishment Population Equivalent
Residential 5 per house
Commercial :
Includes offices, shopping complex,
3 per 100m2 gross area
entertainment / recreational centres,
restaurants, cafeteria and theatres
School / Educational Institutions :
0.2 per student
- Day schools / Institutions
1 per student
- Fully residential
0.2 per non-residential student
- Partial residential
1 per residential student
Hospitals 4 per bed
Hotel with dining and laundry facilities 4 per room
Factories, excluding process water 0.3 per staff
Market (Wet Type) 3 per stall
Market (Dry Type) 1 per stall
Petrol kiosks / Service stations 15 per toilet
Bus Terminal 4 per bus bay
Taxi Terminal 4 per taxi bay
Mosque / Church / Temple 0.2 per person
Stadium 0.2 per person
Swimming Pool or Sports Complex 0.5 per person
Public Toilet 15 per toilet
0.2 per passenger/day
Airport
0.3 per employee
Laundry 10 per machine
Prison 1 per person
Golf Course 20 per hole
THE END
