DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL

ENGINEERING

APOLOGY J CHAMAONA

G0190331J

PROJECT DESIGN DRAFT 1

 (a)Uses of products and their forms

Copper
Introduction
The word copper comes from the Latin word cuprum, which means ore of Cyprus. This is why the
chemical symbol for copper is Cu. Copper is widely used in a variety of products that enable and enhance
our everyday lives. They have excellent electrical and thermal conductivities, exhibit good strength and
formability and they also have outstanding resistance to corrosion and fatigue and are generally non-
magnetic. They can be readily soldered and brazed, and many can be welded by various gas arc, and
resistance methods. They can be polished and buffed to almost any desired texture and luster.
Properties of Copper
1. Good electrical conductivity
Copper has the best electrical conductivity of any metal, except silver. A good electrical conductivity is
the same as a small electrical resistance. An electric current will flow through all metals; however, they
still have some resistance, meaning the current needs to be pushed by a battery in order to keep flowing.
The bigger the resistance, the harder we have to push and the smaller the current is. Current flows easily
through copper thanks to its small electrical resistance, without much loss of energy. This is why copper
wires are used in mains cables in houses and underground although overhead cables tend to be aluminum
because it is less dense. However, where size rather than weight is important, copper is the best choice. A
thick copper strip is used for lightning conductors on tall buildings like church spires. The copper strip
has to be thick so that it can carry a large current without melting. Copper wire can be wound into a coil.
The coil will produce a magnetic field and being made of copper, won’t waste much electrical energy.

2. Good Thermal Conductivity

Copper is a good conductor of heat. This means that if you heat one end of a piece of copper, the other
end will quickly reach the same temperature. Most metals are pretty good conductors; however, apart
from silver, copper is the best. It is used in many heating applications because it doesn’t corrode and has a
high melting point. The only other material that has similar resistance to corrosion is stainless steel.
However, its thermal conductivity is 30 times worse than that of copper

3. Corrosion Resistance
Copper is low in the reactivity series. This means that it doesn’t tend to corrode. This is important for its
use for pipes, electrical cables, saucepans and radiators. It also means that it is well suited to decorative
use. Jewellery, statues and parts of buildings can be made from copper, brass or bronze and remain
attractive for thousands of years. For more information on the benefits of copper’s corrosion resistance
for marine applications, see the Copper Alloys in Aquaculture resource. Copper and its alloys are widely
used in many environments and applications because of their excellent corrosion resistance. Architectural
fittings and fixtures made from copper, brass and bronze continue to provide service in both indoor and
outdoor environments.
 Copper alloys corrode at negligible rates in unpolluted air, water and deaerated non oxidizing acids. Many
copper alloy artifacts have been found in nearly pristine condition after having been buried in the earth for
millennia. Copper roofing has been found to corrode at rates of less than 0.015 in (0.4mm) in 200 years.
Copper alloys resist many saline solutions, alkaline solutions and organic chemicals.
Typical applications where copper and copper alloys provide superior service include indoor and outdoor
architectural components, freshwater supply lines and plumbing fixtures, heat exchangers and condensers,
freshwater and seawater marine hardware, industrial and chemical plant process equipment, electrical
wire and cable, printed circuit boards and industrial products

4. Alloys Easily Joined

Copper can be combined easily with other metals to make alloys. The first alloy produced was copper
melted with tin to form bronze - a discovery so important that periods in history are called The Bronze
Age. Much later came brass (copper and zinc), and - in the modern age - cupronickel (copper and nickel).
The alloys are harder, stronger and tougher than pure copper. They can be made even harder by
hammering them - a process called ‘work hardening’. Copper can be joined easily by soldering or
brazing. This is useful for pipework and for making sealed copper vessels.

5. Ductile
Copper is a ductile metal. This means that it can easily be shaped into pipes and drawn into wires. Copper
pipes are lightweight because they can have thin walls. They don’t corrode and they can be bent to fit
around corners. The pipes can be joined by soldering and they are safe in fires because they don’t burn or
support combustion.

6. Tough
Copper and copper alloys are tough. This means that they were well suited to being used for tools and
weapons. Imagine the joy of ancient man when he discovered that his carefully formed arrowheads no
longer shattered on impact. The property of toughness is vital for copper and copper alloys in the modern
world. They do not shatter when they are dropped or become brittle when cooled below 0°C

7. Non-magnetic
Copper is non-magnetic and non-sparking. Because of this, it is used in special tools and military
applications.

8. Attractive Color
Copper and its alloys, such as brass, are used for jewellery and ornaments. They have an attractive golden
color which varies with the copper content. They have a good resistance to tarnishing making them last a
long a time.
9. Recyclable
Copper can be recycled without any loss of quality. Around 40% of Europe’s demand is met from
recycled copper. For more information, see the Copper Recycling and Sustainability resource.

10. Catalytic
Copper can act as a catalyst – meaning a substance that can speed up a chemical reaction and improve its
efficiency. It does so by reducing the activation energy. Catalysts in biological reactions are called
enzymes. Copper speeds up the reaction between zinc and dilute sulfuric acid. It is found in some
enzymes, one of which is involved in respiration. It really is a vital element

11. Strength
Copper is a relatively soft and malleable metal with excellent formability, making it ideal for architectural
applications such as roofs, wall cladding, gutters and downspouts. Additions of other elements to copper
strengthen it and form copper alloys, including brasses, phosphor bronzes and copper nickels. Copper
alloys possess tensile properties that exceed some aluminum alloys and approach those of stainless steels,
and can be used in a multitude of applications. Miniaturization of electronic devices and components has
benefited from the high strength and moderate to high conductivities offered by specialty copper alloys.

Applications
Copper is a versatile metal that has various uses and can be found in different forms. Some common uses
of copper and its forms include:

1) Electrical wiring: Copper is an excellent conductor of electricity, making it a popular choice for
electrical wiring in homes, buildings, and industries.

2) Plumbing: Copper pipes and fittings are widely used in plumbing systems due to their corrosion
resistance and durability.

3) Electronics: Copper is used extensively in electronic devices and circuits due to its high electrical
conductivity and thermal properties.

4) Roofing and architecture: Copper roofing is known for its longevity and aesthetic appeal. It is also
used in architectural applications such as facades, domes, and sculptures.

5) Heat exchangers: Copper tubes and fins are used in heat exchangers to transfer thermal energy
efficiently in HVAC systems, refrigeration units, and industrial processes.

6) Automotive industry: Copper is used in various automotive components like radiators, brake lines,
connectors, and wiring harnesses due to its thermal conductivity and mechanical strength.
7) Coins and currency: Copper, along with other metals, is used in the production of coins and currency
due to its durability and resistance to corrosion.

8) Antimicrobial applications: Copper's antimicrobial properties make it useful in healthcare settings,

where it is used in surfaces, fixtures, and medical equipment to reduce the spread of bacteria and
viruses.

9) Art and decoration: Copper is widely used in art and decoration due to its malleability and ability to
form intricate designs. It can be found in sculptures, jewelry, and decorative items.

10) Alloys and industrial applications: Copper alloys, such as brass and bronze, have various industrial
applications, including the manufacturing of machinery, tools, musical instruments, and bearings.

Copper can be found in different forms, including:

 Copper wire: Used for electrical wiring and connections.

 Copper pipes and tubes: Utilized in plumbing and HVAC systems.

 Copper sheets and plates: Used in roofing, architecture, and manufacturing applications.

 Copper bars and rods: Commonly used in electrical and industrial applications.

 Copper foils: Used in electronics, printed circuit boards (PCBs), and electromagnetic shielding.

 Copper powder: Used in metallurgical processes, powder metallurgy, and manufacturing of electrical
components.

 Copper alloys: Mixed with other metals to form alloys like brass (copper and zinc) and bronze
(copper and tin) for specific applications.
Gold
Introduction
Gold is metallic, with a yellow color when in a mass, but when finely divided it may be black, ruby, or
purple. It is the most malleable and ductile metal; 1 ounce (28 g) of gold can be beaten out to 300 square
feet. It is a soft metal and is usually alloyed to give it more strength. It is a good conductor of heat and
electricity and is unaffected by air and most reagents.
Gold is usually alloyed in jewelry to give it more strength, and the term carat describes the amount of
gold present (24 carats is pure gold). It is estimated that all the gold in the world, so far refined, could be
placed in a single cube 60 ft. on a side.
The most common gold compounds are auric chloride (AuCl3) and chloroauric acid (HAuCl4). A mixture
of one part nitric acid with three of hydrochloric acid is called aqua regia (because it dissolved gold, the
King of Metals). It is unaffected by air and most reagents.

Uses of gold
Gold’s historical allure is well known. Throughout the ages, civilizations have venerated the precious
yellow metal, coveting its luster and value. The idea of gold jewelry or coins is well established, but gold
is also used in other ways.
Owing to five distinctive properties, gold holds an exceptional place in human history and is used for a
variety of purposes. It is the many uses of gold that always keep it in demand and ensure it will always
have an intrinsic value. Gold is used for a surprising number of things. Many people will be familiar with
its use in jewelry, and coins, but its industrial uses are numerous and important in the demand for gold
globally.

Top uses for gold

1) Wealth protection and a financial exchange

One of the oldest uses of gold is for coins, and other financial assets. Purchased by governments, central
banks, financial institutions and private investors, gold is used as a physical store of wealth. The rarity of
the yellow metal has helped maintain its value throughout the ages. Golds ability to maintain value while
other assets are dropping means it is stored, as pure gold bars and coins, in huge vaults – or under
floorboards – for its investment value alone.

The exact amount of gold bullion held for investment purposes is difficult to put an exact figure on. As
well as national reserves, individuals can also own investment bullion. It is believed that the US holds the
largest reserves but there has not been a physical full audit since Eisenhower’s time in the 1950s.
Germany is believed to have the second largest reserves but both Russia and China are adding to their
stockpiles at an increasing rate.

2) Jewelry, adornments and medals

Jewelry, and other decorative gold products, account for the largest global use of gold. China and India
are the two largest consumers, taking over half of all global production in 2018. In that year, over 1,200
tonnes of gold were consumed for jewellery in China, and over 500 tonnes in India. Whilst no doubt
admiring the beauty and prestige of gold jewellery, many of these buyers will also have an eye to its
investment value.

This precious metal has historically been used as a symbol of luxury, superiority and wealth. Besides
jewellery, gold is used to increase the value of a huge range of decorative items, such as medals and
badges. Goldleaf has traditionally enhanced artworks and, recently, artist Maurizio Cattelan has even
exhibited a gold toilet in the Guggenheim museum in New York!

3) Electronics
Gold does not corrode, is a great conductor of electricity, and is highly resistant to heat. Physically, it is a
soft, pliable metal and can be easily stretched or plated into thin coatings. For these reasons, gold is
perfect to use in electronics, particularly for cables and connectors. With consumer technology growing
annually, there is increasing demand from the electronics industry, particularly in cell phones. In 2018,
electronics consumed over 1,400 tonnes of gold, and in 2017, it accounted for 34% of gold used in the
US.

4) Space exploration
Closely allied with electronic uses, space exploration and satellites are another growing consumer of gold.
Besides the numerous electronic components, thin coatings of the metal are used in for shields and visors,
and golds dependability is essential for the high-risk situation of space travel and exploration.

Gold particles reflect infrared radiation from the sun, helping to keep temperatures down on darker panels
and visors. Gold can also be used as a lubricant, and the volatility of organic lubricants makes them
unsuitable to the extreme temperature ranges and high radiation of space.

5) Medicine and dentistry

Because it is non-reactive and non-toxic, gold has for many years been used in dentistry and medicine.
New applications are being discovered every year, for example in prosthesis, where longevity is essential.
Small amounts of gold are also injected as a treatment for Rheumatoid arthritis and muscle damage, and
micro-particles are being used in the treatment of some cancers. Gold has even been used in Covid tests!

Gold is used as bouillon and in jewelry, glass, and electronics. Jewelry consumes around 75% of all gold
produced. Gold for jewelry can be given a range of hues depending on the metal with which is alloyed
(white, red, blue, green, etc.). Colloidal gold is added to glass to color it red or purple, and metallic gold is
applied as a thin film on the windows of large buildings to reflect the heat of the Sun's ray. Gold
electroplating is used to in the electronic industry to protect their copper components and improve their
solderability.
The physical properties of gold
The physical properties of gold are unique to the world of metals, and each one has its own benefits. It is
the combination of all these properties that make gold such a useful metal. It is very rare and will not rust,
and is non-toxic. It is one of the most beautiful metals and it is easy to work, and extremely malleable. It
has a high electrical conductivity

Platinum
Introduction
The platinum-group elements (PGE) include platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and
osmium. These metals have similar physical and chemical properties and occur together in nature. The
properties of PGE, such as high melting points, corrosion resistance, and catalytic qualities, make them
indispensable to many industrial applications. Pre-Columbian peoples found naturally occurring platinum
and platinum-rich alloys in stream deposits in Colombia and Ecuador and used them to make jewelry. In
the 1500s, Europeans described platinum from the New World as “a substance which it has not hitherto
been possible to melt by fire or by any of the Spanish arts.” The Spaniards found platinum grains
intermingled with gold nuggets they recovered from stream deposits and called the metal “platina.” The
metal had no known use and was considered worthless. Small samples of platinum-enriched nuggets from
South America reached Europe during the 1740s. Platinum was described as a new metal in 1750,
followed by iridium and osmium in 1803, palladium and rhodium in 1804, and ruthenium in 1807

Properties
The name platinum is derived from the Spanish "platina", meaning "little silver". Platinum is a lustrous
silvery-white, malleable, ductile metal and a member of group 10 of the periodic table of the elements. It
has the third highest density, behind osmium and iridium. Platinum is unaffected by air and water but will
dissolve in hot aqua regia, in hot concentrated phosphoric and sulphuric acids, and in molten alkali. It is
as resistant as gold to corrosion and tarnishing. Indeed, platinum will not oxidize in air no matter how
strongly it is heated. Pure platinum is a splendid silvery-white metal that is heavier than gold. It is more
ductile than gold, copper, or silver, and is malleable. Although platinum does not oxidize in air at any
temperature, it is corroded by cyanides, halogens, caustic alkalis, and sulfur. It does not dissolve in nitric
and hydrochloric acids. However, when they are combined to form aqua regia, platinum gets dissolved
and forms chloroplatinic acid (H2PtCl6). In the presence of platinum, oxygen and hydrogen tend to
explode. When fine platinum wire is placed in methyl alcohol vapor, it glows red-hot
The face-centered-cubic lattice structure of platinum makes it highly ductile and malleable. Since it is
usually too soft to be used alone, it is combined with harder metals of the same group to form alloys, such
as iridium, osmium, and rhodium. It has a coefficient of expansion almost equal to that of soda-lime-silica
glass and is therefore used to make sealed electrodes in glass systems. Hydrogen and oxygen gas mixtures
explode in the presence of platinum wire. There are six naturally occurring isotopes: the most abundant
are platinum-194, which accounts for 33%, platinum-195 (34%) and platinum-196 (25%). The others are
platinum-198 (7%), platinum-192 (1%) and platinum-190 (0.01%). The latter is weakly radioactive, with
a half-life of 700 billion years, while the other five are non-radioactive
Applications
Platinum has many uses. Its wear- and tarnish-resistance characteristics are well-suited for making fine
jewelry. Platinum and its alloys are used in surgical tools, laboratory utensils, electrical resistance wires,
and electrical contact points. It is used (30%) as a catalyst in the catalytic converter, an optional
component of the gasoline-fuelled automobile exhaust system. The largest use (50%) of platinum is for
jewellery, another 20% is used in industry: platinum is used in the chemical, electrical, glass and aircraft
industries, each accounting for about 10 tonnes of the metal per year. The glass industry uses platinum for
optical fibers and liquid crystal display glass, especially for laptops.
Platinum is extensively used in:
1. Electrical contacts
2. Corrosion-resistant devices
3. Jewelry
4. Platinum wire is used in high-temperature electric furnaces
5. Instrumentation devices
6. Resistance wire
7. As foil (99.99% pure) for maximum softness in dentistry
8. Standard weights
9. Laboratory vessels and dishes
10. Thermocouples
As an anode for cathodic protection systems for pipelines, large ships and ocean-going vessels, steel
piers, and the like. Can be produced in various forms such as flake, powder, gauze, coating, and foil.
Platinum is used as a catalyst in gauze form for the contact process, which produces sulfuric acid, in
cracking petroleum products to a lesser extent. An example of this is the conversion of alcohol vapor into
formaldehyde. It has been successfully used in commercial products such as hand warmers and cigarette
lighters, in antipollution devices for automobiles, and as a catalyst in fuel cells.

The platinum metal is used in the form of a coating on missile nose cones, jet engine fuel nozzles, and
similar applications that require performance reliability for long periods at high temperatures and/or
resistance to atmospheric corrosion, even in sulfur environments.
Palladium
Introduction
Palladium (atomic symbol Pd) is a platinum group metal (PGM). It is the lightest (least dense) and has the
lowest melting point of the group. Palladium is naturally white, not requiring rhodium plating for use as
jewelry. It is malleable and ductile in its pure form, but too soft for jewelry unless alloyed. As an alloy
containing 950 parts of palladium for jewelry purposes, it is more “pure” than a white gold alloy, but the
additional elements make it harder and more durable in the as-cast condition. Its hardness significantly
increases as it is cold worked making it ideal for jewelry, and palladium wears similarly to platinum.
Palladium resists oxidation at ordinary temperatures but will discolor at soldering temperatures, become
brittle with careless, excessive, and repeated heating and cooling cycles, and react with strong acids. One
of the characteristics that cause it to be sensitive to certain jewelry manufacturing procedures is its ability
to absorb considerable amounts of hydrogen and other gases, especially when molten.

Properties
Malleability:
Palladium is readily capable of being shaped or formed by hammering or pressure. Ductility: Pure or
alloyed, these metals are highly capable of being drawn or bent without breaking.

Hardness:
Palladium alloys considered to be fit for purpose have an as-cast hardness measured using the Vickers
hardness (HV) scale between 110HV and 135HV depending upon the alloy. These hardness
measurements relate to tests on the core of the casting, where surface processing has not affected the
natural hardness. With this hardness range, palladium is relatively resistant to denting, scratching or
bending, and wears similarly to platinum. Softer palladium alloys may still be fit for purpose if cold
worked into jewellery – e.g. wedding rings made from tube or sheet – as long as they are not annealed
after processing.

Strength:
With adequate tolerances, palladium has good strength and will hold shape and form through strain or
stress when properly designed. Because of palladium’s malleability, tolerances should be slightly heavier
or thicker as compared to when using alloys of less purity that contain higher amounts of harder base
metals such as nickel.
 Uses of Palladium
1. Palladium has remarkable properties to absorbed hydrogen gas which remains in an active state. Because
of its ability to absorb hydrogen, it is used as a chemical catalyst in different types of industrial and
laboratory reactions.
2. It is used in various important catalytic reactions like the hydrogenation of acetylene to ethylene.
3. It is used for the production of hydrogen peroxide by oxidation reduction of 2-ethylanthraquinol and 2-
ethyl anthraquinone.
4. For making multi-layer ceramic capacitors, we used a huge quantity of Pd-Ag alloy.
5. It is also used as a different type of electronic component making materials or soldering materials.
6. Pd membranes are used for the production of pure hydrogen gas due to the absorbance properties of
palladium.
7. Pd hydrogen electrodes are widely used in various electrochemical cells.
8. It is not blackened by hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Therefore, it is used for making jewelry.

Because of its corrosion resistance, a major use of palladium is in alloys used in low-voltage electrical
contacts. When it is finely divided, palladium forms a good catalyst and is used to speed up
hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions. Palladium is used extensively in jewelry-making in certain
alloys called “white gold.” It may be alloyed with platinum or substituted for it. It is used in watch
bearings, springs, and balance wheels and also for mirrors in scientific instruments.
In 1990, most catalytic converters relied on platinum to reduce emissions from car exhausts but, while
this metal is still important, palladium is now the main ingredient because this is even more efficient at
removing unburnt and partially burnt hydrocarbons from the fuel. Palladium is nowadays more and more
used in electrical appliances such as wide-screen televisions, computers, and mobile phones, in the form
of tiny multi-layer ceramic capacitors, of which more than 400 billion are made each year. For use in
dentistry, it is alloyed with silver, gold, and copper. Palladium salts are used in electroplating.
Nickel
Introduction
Nickel in its alloyed form with other metals has been used date back to the dawn of civilization and has
made significant contributions to our present day society. The nickel was first isolated and classified as a
chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt. Iron ore limonite which often contains 1-2% nickel
is an economically important source of nickel. Its other ore minerals include pentlandite and garnierite. It
is considered as a corrosion resistant because of nickel’s slow rate of oxidation at room temperature.
Nickel is silvery-white, hard, malleable, and ductile metal. It is of the iron group and it takes on a high
polish. It is a fairly good conductor of heat and electricity. In its familiar compounds nickel is bivalent,
although it assumes other valences. It also forms a number of complex compounds. Most nickel
compounds are blue or green. Nickel dissolves slowly in dilute acids but, like iron, becomes passive when
treated with nitric acid. Finely divided nickel adsorbs hydrogen.

Applications of Nickel Alloys

Wide varieties of applications are there for which nickel and its alloys are used. The mostly involve heat
resistance and corrosion resistance including medical appliances, chemical and petrochemical industries,
aircraft gas turbines, nuclear power systems and steam turbine power plants. Other applications for nickel
alloys involve the unique physical properties of high nickel alloys and special-purpose nickel-based alloys
such as soft magnetic alloys, shape memory alloys, low expansion alloys and electrical resistance alloys.
In addition based on its physical and chemical characteristics, applications of nickel are:
1. Nickel chromium alloys that contain more than about 15% Cr are used in many applications where
they are subjected to harsh environments at very high temperatures. These alloys are used to provide
both carburization resistance and oxidation at temperatures exceeding 760C.
2. As they offer excellent corrosion resistance to wide range of corrosive media, these are widely used
stainless steel.
3. Copper-nickel alloy-based tubing is used in desalination plants as this is naturally corrosion-resistant
to biofouling and by seawater.
4. Nickel and its alloys are also used in making coins
5. Its low-expansion alloys can be designed to have a very low thermal expansion over a certain range
of temperatures.
6. Nickel is used in rechargeable batteries such as NiCd (Nickel Cadmium) and in magnets
7. Its alloys are also used for amour plates and burglar-proof vaults.

The major use of nickel is in the preparation of alloys. Nickel alloys are characterized by strength,
ductility, and resistance to corrosion and heat. About 65 % of the nickel consumed in the Western World
is used to make stainless steel, whose composition can vary but is typically iron with around 18%
chromium and 8% nickel. 12 % of all the nickel consumed goes into super alloys. The remaining 23% of
consumption is divided between alloy steels, rechargeable batteries, catalysts and other chemicals,
coinage, foundry products, and plating.
Nickel is easy to work and can be drawn into wire. It resist corrosion even at high temperatures and for
this reason it is used in gas turbines and rocket engines. Monel is an alloy of nickel and copper (e.g. 70%
nickel, 30% copper with traces of iron, manganese and silicon), which is not only hard but can resist
corrosion by sea water, so that it is ideal for propeller shaft in boats and desalination plants.

Properties of Nickel Alloys

Throughout the alloy families, Nickel content ranges from 32.5 to 99.5%. Its alloys are ductile and strong
and nickel base super alloys are specified for high temperature and strength at temperature to 2000F.The
commercial forms of nickel alloys are fully austenitic and are mainly selected for corrosive resistance
feature to high temperature. It is supplied in different forms to their producers such as anode, pellets and
powder forms. Its alloys are characterized by high density offering electronic and magnetic property.
Furthermore, these offer resistance to corrosion to reducing environments along with some reasonable
thermal transfer characteristics.
(b)Alternative process routes and choice of routes
Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) are recovered through underground and open pit mining from poly-
metallic sulphide ores containing PGMs, Nickel, Copper and other metals:
• Platinum (Pt), Palladium (Pd), Rhodium (Rh) and Ruthenium (Ru) are the most prevalent of the six
PGMs, with Iridium (Ir), and Osmium (Os) found in much smaller quantities
• Gold is often associated with PGM deposits and treated as part of a family — with Platinum, Palladium
and Rhodium —collectively known as “4E”
• Nickel and Copper are the most prevalent base metals
• Chromite (used to derive Chrome) is another significant byproduct
• Cobalt, silver, selenium, and tellurium are found and recovered in trace quantities

World PGM reserves total about 3,200 M oz (c. 200 years at the current rate of production) and are found
in relatively few areas of the world; South Africa (88%), Russia (8%), North America (2%), Zimbabwe
(1%) and Rest of World (1%)  South Africa (SA) is the source of over 60% of newly mined PGMs and
over 80% of Platinum. PGM mining in South Africa is in the Bushveld Complex in three regions
commonly referred to as the Western, Eastern, and Northern Limbs  The Bushveld Complex includes
three distinct mineral-bearing reefs:
• The Merensky Reef, the source of most historical and current SA production, contains relatively higher
PGM grades and ratios of Platinum (vs. Palladium)
• The UG2 Reef, a chromite-rich reef, is more consistent but lacks Merensky’s high yield of Gold,
Copper, and Nickel byproducts. In the last decade, PGM miners have recovered chromite as a separate
product.
• Plat reef is a wider reef with lower PGM values, but higher base metal content.
The principal sources of PGM are sulphide and arsenide minerals such as PtAs 2, PtS, Pt(AsS)2, (Pt,Pd)S,
(Pt,Pd,Ni)S, RuS2 and Pd3Sb and elemental ruthenium. Noble metals together with cobalt (Co), copper
(Cu), iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) belong to the class of transition metals in the periodic table. Geologically,
PGM associates with base metal sulphides such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2), millerite (NiS), pentlandite
(Fe,Ni)9S8, pyrite (FeS2) and pyrrhotite (Fe1−xS). Troilite carries trace amounts of iridium, while
chalcopyrite has trace amounts of Ru, Pd, Ir, and Pt. Gangue minerals associated with PGM-containing
minerals are feldspar, biotite, plagioclase, and pyroxene.
PGM ore processing

The PGM ore is initially treated in primary and secondary crushers after which it is sent to rod and ball
milling circuits. The milled PGM ore is treated using gravity separators and flotation cells; xanthate and
dithiophosphate collectors are typical reagents used for flotation at a pH of 7.5–9. A sulphide rich PGM
concentrate is produced in the flotation cells. UG2 also has higher PGM content than the Merensky
concentrate. The concentrate from the flotation cells is dried and smelted to separate the sulphides from
the silicates.
To separate the PGM-rich sulphides from the gangue minerals, smelting is used. Rectangular six-in-line
or circular three-electrode electric furnaces are typical in the PGM industry. Smelting is a high-
temperature process step where the sulfides (valuable minerals) are separated from the silicates (gangue
minerals). The energy required for melting the concentrate is provided by Joule heating when an electric
current is passed through the resistive bath. The electrodes are used for electrical connections between the
power supply and the bath. Graphite electrodes are inserted into the resistive bath such that when a
current is applied through the electrodes, thermal energy is generated.
The PGM concentrate is introduced into the smelter through the feed ports situated on the furnace roof.
The concentrate forms a thick bed (~400 mm) on top of the molten bath. The heat generated in the
resistive bath causes the concentrate bed to melt gradually. The operating temperature of the smelter at
the concentrate zone can range from 600 to 900°C. The liquidus temperature of base metal sulphides
associated with PGMs is 850–875°C, whereas the liquidus temperature of the corresponding silicates is
approximately 1350°C. The sulphides in a PGM concentrate start melting at the concentrate bed since the
temperature at the concentrated zone can exceed the liquidus temperature of the sulphides. The silicate
minerals melt when they reach the molten bath (concentrate-slag interface). The silicates and sulphides
are immiscible; upon melting they form two separate layers.
The molten silicates and oxides form a fayalitic-forsteric slag layer, while the PGM-containing sulphides
form a matte layer. The specific gravity of matte ranges from 4.8 to 5.6, and that of slag ranges from 2.8
to 3.8. Owing to the difference in specific gravities of matte and slag, the slag forms a top layer. Matte
being denser than slag falls through the slag layer and settles underneath the slag. Matte consists of base
metal sulphides (cobalt, copper, iron and nickel). Matte serves as a collector for the PGMs. The operating
temperature of matte and slag varies with the composition of the concentrate. Typical smelter operating
temperature for matte varies from 1380 to 1600°C, and that of slag varies from 1500 to 1680°C.
The molten slag and matte are tapped out of the smelter through the tap holes situated at the sidewall of
the furnace. After tapping, the matte either can be fed directly to the converters tapped or can be
granulated before the conversion step; matte treatment varies with the producers. Matte from different
smelters seems to have comparable amounts of major components. Gangue minerals associated with
PGM-containing minerals are feldspar, biotite, plagioclase, and pyroxene ([Ca, Na]Al 1–2Si3–2O8). During
smelting, these gangue minerals form a slag that is a silicate-rich phase.
After smelting, the furnace matte is treated in Pierce-Smith converters or Ausmelt process where iron
sulphide is oxidised to ferrous oxide and sulphur is oxidised to sulphur dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is
removed as an off-gas, and iron oxide is removed as a fayalitic slag. The slag phase of the converter
contains significant amounts of entrained PGM and is recycled to the smelting furnace to recover the
entrained PGM. The converter matte is cooled, milled and treated in base metals refinery (BMR).
Typical hydrometallurgical processes used for PGM purification are as follows: dissolution-precipitation
(pressure oxidation leach), solvent extraction and ion exchange and molecular recognition technology.
Pressure oxidation leach is a typical hydrometallurgical process used to separate base metals from the
PGM residue. The base metals are leached, while the PGMs remain in the residue. The PGM residue is
sent to a precious metal refinery where various solution extraction and precipitation methods are used to
separate individual metals. Solvent extraction is another method by which PGMs can be separated from
the base metals.
The conventional smelting process has challenges with high chromium feed, premature failure of
refractory lining and increased operating cost associated with increasing cost of electricity in South
Africa. The Kell process is an alternative way to process a PGM concentrate, and it has a number of
advantages such as less energy consumption, less energy cost, less electricity consumption, less
CO2 emissions and no restriction on chrome content of feed.

Kell hydrometallurgical process for extraction of platinum group metals

Kell process
The Kell hydrometallurgical process route was developed specifically for PGM-bearing concentrates and
has grant of letters patent by South African, USA, and Canadian patent offices. This process consists of
several conventional sequential unit operations. Sulphur, Ni, Co, and Cu are first selectively removed by
use of a modified pressure oxidation (POX) step. The residue from this step is subjected to a thermal
treatment to render PGM phases readily amenable to recovery by chlorination. All the steps are very
similar to well-proven conventional unit operations in common use, as are the subsequent metal recovery
steps to provide the saleable end-products. Solution streams are typically recycled, and reagents are
regenerated. The chromite-related issues encountered in smelting do not pertain to the Kell Process,
which is insensitive to the chromite content of the concentrates.

Flotation concentrator operations are therefore not constrained by a chromite content limit on the final
concentrate and can be operated to maximize PGM recovery. A comparative energy balance study of the
Kell and the matte smelting processes shows that a 50 percent reduction in energy consumption may be
achieved compared with smelting for an 80:20 blend of Merensky concentrates. In addition, electricity
consumption is reduced by 82 percent and the reduction in overall CO2 emissions is 70 percent. For a
treatment rate of 25 t/h concentrate the installed electrical power requirement for Kell is approximately 3
MW compared with approximately 38 MW for matte smelting. The study demonstrated that the energy
costs for Kell are $7 per ton of concentrate, compared with $29 per ton for matte smelting and refining.
The Kell process has been successfully tested on several different sulphide concentrates. It has been
shown to provide selective and high extraction efficiencies for the key valuable metals—Pt, Pd, Rh, Au,
Ni, Co, and Cu. Significant improvements and refinements have also been introduced as a result of further
comprehensive batch and pilot-scale test work and engineering studies undertaken during the past few
years on several different concentrate types.
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