FUNDAMENTALS Chapter 21

OF

ABSTRACT ALGEBRA Field Extensions

Contents
21 Field Extensions 445 In this chapter, we study a special type of ring called a field. Results about
21.1 Algebraic Extensions.......................... 445 fields have applications in number theory and the theory of equations. The
21.1.1 Worked-Out Exercises.................... 454 theory of equations deals with roots of polynomials. It is here that our main
21.1.2 Exercises 457 interest lies. This interest leads us to an introduction of Galois theory.
21.2 Splitting Fields............................. 459 The importance of the concept of a field was first recognized by Abel and
21.2.1 Worked-Out Exercises...................... 466 Galois in their research on the solution of equations by radicals. However, the
21.2.2 Exercises............................. 467 formal definition of a field appeared more than 70 years later. The works of
21.3 Algebraically Closed Fields....................... 468 Dedekind and Kronecker seem to be responsible for the entrance of the concept
21.3.1 Exercises............................ 472 of a field into mathematics. However, in 1910, in his paper, Algebraic Theorie
der Koperer, Steinitz gave the first abstract definition of a field. His work freed
22 Multiplicity of Roots 474
the concept of a field from the context of complex numbers.
22.1 Multiplicity of Roots.......................... 474
22.1.1 Worked-Out Exercises.................... 487
22.1.2 Exercises 489 21.1 Algebraic Extensions
23 Finite Fields 492
Let us recall that the characteristic of a field F is either 0 or a prime p. By
23.1 Finite Fields .............................. 492
Theorem 11.1.9, the intersection of any collection of subfields of a field F is
23.1.1 Worked-Out Exercises.................... 494
again a subfield of F. Hence, a field contains a subfield which has no proper
23.1.2 Exercises 497
subfield, namely, the intersection of all its subfields.
24 Galois Theory and Applications 500
24.1 Normal Extensions........................... 500 Definition 21.1.1 A field, F is called a prime field if F has no proper sub­
24.1.1 Worked-Out Exercises.................... 501 field.
24.1.2 Exercises 509
24.2 Galois Theory.............................. 503 Theorem 21.1.2 Let F be a field.
24.2.1 Worked-Out Exercises.................... 513 (i) If the characteristic of F is 0, then F contains a subfield K such that
24.2.2 Exercises..............................518 K
24.3 Roots of Unity and Cyclotomic Polynomials........... 519
(ii) If the characteristic of F is p > 0, then F contains a subfield K such
24.3.1 Worked-Out Exercises.................... 525
that K ~ Zp.
24.3.2 Exercises..............................527
24.4 Solvability of Polynomials by Radicals................ 528
24.4.1 Worked-Out Exercises.................... 535
24.4.2 Exercises............................. 535
21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 446
21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 447

Proof. Define f : Z -^F by

Theorem 21.1.3 Let F be a field- and K be a, subfield of F. The following
/(n) = nl conditions are equivalent.
(i) K is the prime subfield of F.
for all n G Z, where 1 denotes the identity of F. Then f is a homomorphism. (ii) K is the intersection of all subfields of F. ■
(i) Suppose the characteristic of F is 0. Then Ker f = {0} and so f is
one-one. Define f* : Q —> F by Let F be a field and K a subfield of F. The field F is called an extension
of the field K. We express this by F/K and call F/K a field extension or an
extension field.

for all | € Q. Let E Q. Now | if and only if ad = be if and only if Definition 21.1.4 Let F/K be afield extension and C be a. subset of F. Define
f(ad) = f(bc) if and only if f(a)f(d) = f'(c)f(b) if and only if /(a)/(b)_1 =
K(C) to be the intersection of all subfields of F which contain K U C. Then
/(c)/(d)-1 if and only if /*(f) = /*(j). Hence, /* is a one-one function. Now
the subfield. K(C) of F is called the subfield of F generated by C over K. C
is called a. set of generators for K(C}/K.
/‘(t + a) =
= f(ad+bc)f(bd) 1
Let K[C] be the smallest subring of F containing K U C. Since any subfield
of F which contains K U C must contain K[C], we have that K’(C) equals
= fW(b)-> + AcW)-1
the intersection of all subfields which contain /CfC]. Now /C[C] is an integral
= /*(§) + /*(§)• domain since it is a subring (with identity) of a field. Thus, by Theorem 12.1.6,
Also, K(C) = {ab-1 | a, b e , b ± 0}.
/•(H) = m)
= f(ac)f(bd) 1 That is, K’(C') is the set of all rational expressions of the elements of K[C].
Hence, K(C) is a quotient field of 1C[C].
- Let F/K be a field extension and ci, C2,..., cn G F. Considering Definition
= 21.1.4, it follows that Kfc\, C2,...,Cn) = 7<(ci, C2, -. -, cn_i)(cn). Recall that
Thus, /* is a homomorphism. Hence, Q ~ T(f*), where T(/*) is the image of -K(ci) = {ab_1 | a, b € JCfcj], b / 0};
/*. Let AT = T(/*).
Definition 21.1.5 Let F/K be a field, extension. An element a 6 F is sold to
(ii) Suppose the characteristic of F is p > 0. Now
be algebraic over K if there exist ko, k^, ..., kn EK, not all.zero, such that
Z/Ker/~T(/). ko + k]_a+ • ■ • + knan = 0; otherwise a is called transcendental over K.

Since the characteristic of F is not zero, T(/) j=- {0}. Therefore, Z(/) is a non­ Let F/K be a field extension and let a 6 F. Then a is algebraic over K if
trivial subring with 1 of the field F. Consequently, 2"(/) is an integral domain and only if a is a root of a nonzero polynomial with coefficients from K.
and so Z/Ker / is an integral domain. This implies Ker / is a prime ideal of
Z and Z / Ker /. There exists a prime q such that Ker / = qZ. Now ql = 0 Example 21.1.6 The element \/2 in R is algebraic over Q since y/2 is a root
implies that p\q and so q = p. Hence, Z/Ker / ~ Zp. ■ of x2 - 2 € Q[z]. The element i EC is algebraic over R and Q since i is a.
root of x2 + 1 e <M
Let L be a subfield of Q. Since L\{0} is a subgroup of Q\{0} under multi­
plication, 1 E L. Hence, Z C L and so Q C L. Thus, Q has no proper subfield. Example 21.1.7 It can be shown that 7r, e E R are transcendental over Q. In
the quotient field F(x) of the polynomial ring F[x], F afield, x is transcendental
Similarly, Zp has no proper subfield, where p is a prime.
Thus, the subfield K of the field F in Theorem 21.1.2 is the prime subfield over F since 527=0 aixt = C if a.nd only if a* =0 for i = 0,1,..., n.
of F.
Theorem 21.1.8 Let F/K be a. field extension and cEF. Then c is algebraic
The following theorem can be easily verified. We leave its proof as an
over K if and only if c is a. root of some unique irreducible monic polynomial
exercise.
p(x) over K.
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21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 448 21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 449

Proof. Suppose c is algebraic over K. There exists a nonzero polynomial Theorem 21.1.11 Let F/K be a field extension and c E F.
/(x) € /C[rr] such that c is a root of f(x) and f(x) £ K. By Theorem 16.1.15, (i) If c is transcendental over K, then K(c) ~ K(x), where K(x) is the
there exist irreducible polynomials /i(x), /2(x),...,/m(x) € /C[x] such that quotient field of the polynomial ring 7C[z].
f{x) = Thus, (ii) If c is algebraic over K, then K[c] ~ K\x\/(p(xf), where p(x) is the
minimal polynomial of c over K.
0 = /(c) = /i(c)/2(c) • ■ • /m(c).
Proof. Define the mapping a : > Jf[c] by for all f(x) E
Since F has no zero divisors, we must have fi(c) = 0 for some i. Thus, there
exists an irreducible polynomial h,(x) = 6o + ^i^+ • • • + bm 0, such that «(/(*)) = /(c).
h(c) = 0. Let p(x) = bl^hfx). Then p(x) is an irreducible monic polynomial in
K[x] with c as a root. Then by Theorem 14.1.14, a is a homomorphism of onto K[c]. Thus,
Let g(x) be any polynomial in K[x], which has c as a root. Let p(x) be
a monic polynomial of smallest degree in _K[z], which has c as a root. There K[x]/Ker a ~ K[c].
exist q(x), r(x) E K’fx] such that g(x) = q(x)p(x) + r(z), where either r(z) = 0
(i) Now f(x) E Ker a if and only if /(c) = 0, i.e., if and only if c is a root
or degr(z) < degp(z). Now
of /(z). Hence, Ker a = {0} if and only if c is transcendental over K. Thus, c
is transcendental over K implies a is an isomorphism of 7C[x] onto AT[c] and so
0 = g(c) = q(c)p(c) + r(c) = g(c) • 0 + r(c).
by Exercise 5 (page 324), a can be extended to an isomorphism of K(x) onto
Thus, r(c) = 0, whence r(x) = 0 else we contradict the minimality of the de­ JC(c). Consequently, if c is transcendental over K. then K(x) ~ K(c).
gree of p(x). This implies that p(x)\g(x) in K[x]. Let s(x) be any irreducible (ii) Suppose c is algebraic over K. Since K[x] is a principal ideal domain,
polynomial in _K[z], which has c as a root (one such polynomial is fi(x) for there exists g(x) E K[x] such that Ker a = {g(xf). Now a^g(x)} — g(c) — 0.
some i, 1 < i < m). Then p(x) |s(t). Now p(x) is not a constant polynomial in Hence, c is a root of g(x). Thus, p(x)\g(x) and so there exists g(x) € -K[z] such
K[x] since it has c as a root. Thus, since s(x) is irreducible in ^[x], p(x) must that g(x) = g(x)p(x). This implies that g(x) E (p(z)) and so
be irreducible in K[x]. Also, p(x) = ks(x) for some k e K. If we choose s(x)
Ker a = (g(x)} C (p(x)}.
monic, then k = 1 and so we have the desired uniqueness property of p(x). The
converse is immediate. ■ Since p(c) = 0, p(x) E Ker a. Therefore, (p(x)) C Ker a. Consequently, Ker
a = (p(xf). ■
The proof of Theorem 21.1.8 yields the next result.
Corollary 21.1.12 Let F/K be a field, extension and c E F. Then
Corollary 21.1.9 Let F/K be a field extension and c E F be such that c is (i) K[c] C K(c} if and only if c is transcendental over K,
algebraic over K. Then the unique monic irreducible polynomial p(x) over K (ii) 7C[c] = K(c) if and only if c is algebraic over K.
having c as a root satisfies the following properties:
(i) There is no polynomial g(x) E having smaller degree thanpfx) and Proof. Since JC[c] C K(c) always holds, (i) and (ii) are equivalent state­
which has c as a root. ments. Hence, we show that (ii) holds. Suppose c is algebraic over K. Then
(ii) If c is a root of some g(x) E AT[x], then p(x)\g(x) in lf[x]. ■ by Theorem 21.1.11,
K[c] ~ K[x\! (p(t))
We call the polynomial p(z), in Corollary 21.1.9, the minimal polynomial
and since p(x) is irreducible, K[x]/ (p(x)) is a field. Thus, 7<[c] = K(c). Con­
of c over. K. The degree of p(x) is called the degree of c over K
versely, suppose K[c] — K(c). If c = 0, then c is the root of the polynomial
x E K[x]. Suppose that c / 0. Then c-1 E K(c) and so c*1 = ko + k]C+
Example 21.1.10 By Examples 21.1.6,15.3.6, and 15.3.7, we have that x2 — 2 -- \-kncn for some ki E K. This implies that 0 = —l + koc+kic2 H--- \-kncn+1
is the minim,al polynomial of \/2 over Q and, x2 + 1 is the minimal polynomial
and so c is algebraic over K. ■ ■
of i over R.
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21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 450 21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 451

Let F/K be a field extension. Under the field operations of F, F can be Proof. Let n be the dimension of F/K. Let c G F be such that c / 0,
considered as a vector space over K. The elements of F are thought of as c/ 1. (Clearly 0 and 1 are algebraic over K.) If the set {1, c, c2, ..., cn} does
“vectors” while those of K are thought of as “scalars.” Recall that (F, +) is a not contain n +1 distinct elements, then = 1 for some i, j (0 < i < j < n)
commutative group and that for all fci,&2 € F and ai,a2 6 F, A?i(ai + ^2) — and so c is a root of x^~z — 1. Suppose 1, c, c2,..., cn are distinct. Then they
kiai + kiaz, (k-[ +kz)ai = k-^a-i + /v2^i hold from the distributive laws and that must be linearly dependent since they are more in number than the dimension
(kifefjai = A:i(/c2«i) holds from the associative law of multiplication. of the vector space F over K. Hence, there exist ko,k]_,... ,kn G K not all zero
such that 0 = 52?=o ^ch Thus, c is a root of the polynomial £X=o over F. ■
Definition 21.1.13 Let F/K be a field extension. The dimension of the vector
space F over K is called, the degree or dimension of F/K and is denoted The converse of Theorem 21.1.18 is not true, that is, it is not necessarily
by [F : K]. If the dimension of F/K is finite, then F/K is called 0. finite the case that if every element of F is algebraic over K, then F/K is & finite
extension. field extension. It can be shown that the set of all elements A of R, which are
algebraic over Q is a field such that [A : Q] is infinite (Theorem 21.1.22 and
Theorem 21.1.14 Let F/K be a field, extension and c E F be algebraic over Example 21.1.25). A is called the field of algebraic numbers.
K. Let p(x) be the minim,al polynomial of c over K. If deg p(x) = n, then
{l,c, c2,... ,cn_1} is a basis of K(c)/K.
Theorem 21.1.19 LetK(c)/K be a field extension. ThenK{c)/K is finite if
and only if c is algebraic over K.
Proof. By Corollary 21.1.12, K[c] = F(c). Let g(c) 6 F[c] and g(x) be
the corresponding element in F[a;]. There exist q(x), r(x) € F[x] such that
g(x) = q(x)p(x) + r(x), where either r(x) = 0 or degr(z) < degp(a;). Thus, Proof. If K(c]/K is finite, then c is algebraic over K by Theorem 21.1.18.
g(c) = <7(c)p(c)+r(c) = r(c). Hence, {1, c, c2,..., cn_1} spans K(c)/K. Suppose If c is algebraic over K, then K(c)/K is finite by Corollary 21.1.15. ■
0= F the kfs are not all zero, then c is a root of a polynomial
of degree < n — 1 < n. a contradiction. Thus, ki = 0 for i = 0,1,..., n — 1 and Let F/K be a field extension. A subfield L of F is called an intermediate
so {1, c, c2,..., cn_1} is linearly independent over K. Hence, {1, c, c2,..., cn_1} field of F/K if K C L C F. Since a — b G L for all a, b G L and ka E L for all
is a basis of K(c)/K. ■ k G K and a E L, it follows that L is a subspace of F over K. An intermediate
field L of F/K is called proper if L F.
Corollary 21.1.15 Let F/K be a field extension. If c 6 F is algebraic and of
degree n over K, then [F(c) : K] = n. ■ Theorem 21.1.20 Let F/K be a. field extension o.nd L be an intermediate
field of F/K. Then
Example 21.1.16 The field, extension Q(y^)/Q is of degree 2 and {1, \/2}
is a basis of Q(V^) over Q since p(x) = x2 — 2 is the minirnal polynomial of [F-.K] = [F-.L][L-.K],
x/2 over Q by Example 21.1.10. Thus, Q(\/2) = {a + b\/2 | a, b G Q}. Moreover, F/K is a finite extension if and only if F/L o,nd. L/K are finite
extensions.
The student may recall from another mathematics course that a + by/2 =
c + dy/2 if and only if a = c and b = d, where a, b,c,d G Q. This becomes clear
now since 1 and a/2 are linearly independent over Q by Theorem 21.1.14. Proof. Let V be a basis of F/L and U be a basis of L/K. We show that

Example 21.1.17 By Theorem 21.1.14, the field extension R(z)/R is of degree W = {uv | u 6 U,v G V}
2 and. {1, 2} is a basis of R(z) over R since p(x) = x2 + 1 is the minimal
polynomial of i over R. Thus, R(i) = {a + bi | a, b G R}. Hence, we see that is a basis of F/K. Let c E F. Since V is a basis of F/L, there exist 14, V2,..., vn e
R(z) is C, the field of complex numbers. V and Ci, C2,..., cn E L such that

n
Theorem 21.1.18 Let F/K be a finite field extension. Then every element c = EcivF (21.1)
of F is algebraic over K.
21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 452 21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 453

Since U is a basis of L/K, there exist ui,U2,... ,um G U and kij,k2j, ■ ■., Proof. Any k G K is a root of the polynomial x — k over K. Thus, L D K.
kjnj £ K such that Let a and b be elements of L, where a is of degree 772 over K and b is of degree
?2 over K. Then K(a)/K is of degree m and AT (a, 6)/AT(a) is of degree at most
m
Cj = k^jU^, j = 1, 2, . . . , 72. (21.2) 72. Hence, by Theorem 21.1.20, K(a,b)/K is a finite extension. By Theorem
i=l 21.1.18, every element of K(a, b) is algebraic over K. Since a — b and a6_1 (for
b / 0) are elements of K(a, b), a — b and nd-1 (for 6^0) are algebraic over K.
Substituting Eq. (21.2) into Eq. (21.1), we obtain
Thus, a — b and ab_1 (for b / 0) G L and so L is a field. ■
n m
C — kijUjVj.
Definition 21.1.23 A field extension F/K is called algebraic if every ele­
J=11=1
ment of F is algebraic over K\ otherwise F/K is called transcendental.
Thus, W spans F over K. Suppose
Theorem 21.1.24 Let L be an intermediate field of the field, extension F/K.
n m
o = ^2 Then F/K is a.n algebraic extension if and only if F/L and L/K are algebraic
j=l i=l extensions.

where Ui e t/, Vj G V, and kij G K for all i = 1,2,..., 772; J = 1,2,..., n. Then
Proof. Suppose that F/K is algebraic. Let a G F. Then a is a root of
n m a nonzero polynomial p(x) E AT[x]. Since K C L, p{x) E L[x]. Thus, a is
0 = kg Uj ) Vj
algebraic over L and so F/L is algebraic. Every element of L is an element
j=l i=l
of F. Hence, L/K is algebraic. Conversely, suppose F/L and L/K are alge­
and since V is linearly independent over L, braic extensions. Let c E F. Then c is a root of some nonzero polynomial
m
co + cix + ♦•• + cnxn G L[a:]. Thus, c is algebraic over K(co, ci, ...,cn)
0— k{j Ui, j — 1, 2, . . . , 72. whence JC(co, ci,..., cn)(c)/AT(co, ci,..., cn) is a finite extension. Since cq,
2= 1 Ci, ... ,cn are algebraic over K, repeated application of Theorem 21.1.20 yields
Thus, k^ = 0 for i = 1,2,..., 777,; J = 1,2, ..., n since U is linearly independent that K{cq, ci, ..., cn)(c)/Jf is a finite extension. Therefore, c is algebraic over
over K. Hence, W is linearly independent over JC, whence W is a basis of F K by Theorem 21.1.18. Hence, F/K is an algebraic extension. ■
over K. Let u,u' G U and v,v' G V. If v / v', then uv / u'v' since v and v'
are linearly independent over L. If v = vz, then uv = u'v' if and only if u = u'. Example 21.1.25 Let F = Q({^ | p E Z, p is a prime}) C R. We show
Consequently, for all u, u' E U and for all v,v' G V if either u / u' or v / v', that F/Q is algebraic and [F : Q] = 00. Now for any prime p, y/p Q.
then uv / u'v'. Hence, [F : K] = \U x V\ = \U\ |V| = [F : L][L K]. Now if Let pi,... ,pn be any distinct prim.es. Suppose p Pi, i = 1,2, ...,n, and
p is a prime. Assume that y/p Q(-0>i, •••> \/Pn), Ike induction hypoth­
either U or V is infinite, then W is infinite. If U and V are finite sets, then W
is a finite set. Hence, F/K is a finite extension if and only if F/L and L/K esis. (The case n = 0 is y/p Q and this case is described above.) We

are finite extensions. ■ show that if piy... ,pn+l are distinct prim.es and p pi, i = 1,2, ..., 72 + 1,
then y/p i Q(V^T, • • •, VPn+i). Suppose y/p G Q(^/pl,.... y/pn+/)- Then there
Example 21.1.21 Consider the field. extension Q(\/2, \/3)/Q. By Example exist a,b E Q(y^i,. -•, y/p/f) such that y/p = a + by/pn+i. If a = 0, then
21.1.10, x2 — 2 is the minimal polynomial of y/2 over Q. Also, x2 — 3 is the p = b2pn+i, a contradiction since p and, pn+i are distinct primes. If b = 0,
minimal polynomial of y/3 over Q(\/2). (That x2 — 3 is irreducible over Q(\/2) then y/p = a E Q(-^i, • ■ ■, y/Pn), a contradiction to our induction hypothesis.
follows by an argument that is similar to the one used in Worked-Out Exercise Suppose a / 0 and b / 0. Then p = a2 +pn+i&2 + 2a6ypn+i. Hence, y/pn+i =
1, page 454 J Thus, {1, a/2} is a basis of Q(\/2)/Q and {1,^/3} is a. basis of (p- a2 - pn+1b2)/2ab G Q(v^T, ■■■, y/p/) and so y/p e Q(7pT,..., y/p/), a.
Q(\/2, \/3)/Q(-\/2). By Theorem, 21.1.20, {1,\/2,\/3,\/6} is a basis o/Q(-\/2. contradiction of the hypothesis. Hence, y/p Q(-^/pi, • • •, y/pn+i)- Thus, by the
V5)/Q. [Q(x/2, v^) : Q) = 4, [Q(72, v^) : Q(v/2)] = 2, and. [Q(x/2) : Q] = 2. induction hypothesis, we fi.nd that for a.ny positive integer k, if pi,... ,pk, p are
distinct prim.es, then y/p Q(^/pi,..., y/fik)- Hence,
Theorem 21.1.22 Let F/K be a field extension. If L is the set of all elements
in F, which, are algebraic over K, then L is an intermediate field of F/K. QcQ(V5)cQ(v^,V3)c---
“Pu^uc. TltxL±li.cj*ija±lcjal. ~Ph.ySl.c-A. ~PuJi!C. Tltxi£Jt.cj^txi£lcxLL ~Pl±.y.Alc^A.
21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 454 21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 455

is an infinite strictly ascending chain of intermediate fields of F/Q. Hence, Since {1, \/3} is linearly independent over Q, a + c = 0 and b + d = 0. Hence,
F/Q must be of infinite dimension. Let a € F. Then there exist prim.es pi, ...,
-a2 - 3b2 + (-2^6)73 = -7.
pn such that a E QC^/pi, .. •, v^)- &nce Q(v^i» • • • > V^n)/Q is a finite field
extension, a is algebraic over Q by Theorem 21.1.18. Hence, F/Q is algebraic. Thus, —a2 — 352 = —7 and — 2ab = 0. Hence, ab = 0. Suppose a — 0. Then
Note that from, this example, it follows that [R : Q] = oo. 362 — 7. Now b = — for some integers m and n with gcd(m, n) = 1. Therefore,
3m2 = 7n2, which contradicts the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. Suppose
The above example provides us with a field extension F/Q which shows
b = 0. Then a2 = 7, which again leads to a contradiction of the fundamental
that the converse of Theorem 21.1.18 is not true. Since the field of algebraic
theorem of arithmetic. Thus, x2 — 7 is irreducible in Q(x/3)[z].
numbers A contains F, we have [A : Q] = oo.
i 0 Exercise 2 Find [Q(v/3, \/7) : Q(a/3)] and (Q(x/3) • Q]« Also, find a basis
Definition 21.1.26 Let F/K and L/K be field extensions and a : F —> L be for Q(\/3, \/7)/Q(v/3) and a basis for Q(x/3, V/7)/Q-
a homom orphism. Then a is called a K-homomorphism if a (a) = a for all
aEK. Solution: By Worked-Out Exercise 1 (page 454), x2 — 7 is irreducible over
Q(V/3). Thus,
Let F/K and L/K be field extensions and a : F —> L be a K-homomorphism. [Q(^3, V7) : Q(V3)] = deg(z2 - 7) = 2.
Since a is a nonzero homomorphism, Ker a F. Therefore, Ker a = {0} since
By Theorem 21.1.14, {1, y/7} is a basis for Q(\/3, V/7)/Q(y/3). Since x2 — 3 is
the only ideals of F are F and {0}. This implies that cr is one-one. Hence, <7
irreducible over Q, (Q(\/3) ■ Q] =2 and {1, %/3} is a basis for Q(\/3)/Q. Thus,
is an isomorphism of F onto <r(F). We simply call a a K-isomorphism of F
into L. II L = F = a(F) and cr is a JC-isomorphism of F into L, then we call [Q(a/3, V7) : Q] = [Q(73, \/7) : Q(\/3)][Q(v/3) : Q] = 2 • 2 = 4.
a a K-automorphism.
By Theorem 21.1.20, {1, v^l} is a basis of Q(\/3, \/7)/Q.
Theorem 21.1.27 Let F/K be an algebraic extension and a : F —> F be a
K-homomorphism. Then a is an automorphism. <0> Exercise 3 Find an element u E R such that Q(\/2, ^7) = Q(u).

Solution: We claim that u = y/2-^7. Since u = \/2y/7 E Q(\/2, v^),

Proof. As above cr is one-one. To show a is an automorphism, it only Q(u) C Q(x/2, ^7). Now E Q(u) implies that 14^2 = (V2y^)3 E Q(u).
remains to be shown that cr(F) = F, i.e., cr is onto F.
Hence, y/2 E Q(ufi Since y/2,\fi2-\/7 E Q(w), \/7 E Q(^). Therefore, Q(V2,
Let a e F. Let /(z) = a$ + a^x + • • • 4- afrXk G K[x] be the minimal
^7) C Q(u). Thus, Q(v/2, ^7) = Q(u).
polynomial of a over K. Let b be any root of f(x) in F. Then /(a(6)) =
uq + uicr(6) + • • • + aka(b)k = cr(ao + &ib + • • • + afrbk) = 0. Hence, a(b) is a 0 Exercise 4 (i) Let F be a field and a, b be members of a field containing F.
root of f(x). Let F' be the subfield of F generated by all roots of f(x) over Suppose that a and b are algebraic of degree m and n over F, respectively.
K that lie in F. Then F'/K is a finite extension. Since cr maps a root of f(x) Suppose m and n are relatively prime. Show that [F(a, 6) : F] = mn.
to a root of f(xfi a maps F' into F'. Since [F' : K] = [cr(F') : K], it now
(ii) Show that the result in (i) need not be true if m, and n are not
follows that [F' : O’(F')] = 1 by Theorem 21.1.20 and so F' = cr(F'). Hence,
relatively prime.
a E F' = cr(F') C a(F). Thus, a is onto F. ■
Solution: (i) Let f(x) E F[x] be the minimal polynomial of a of degree
21.1.1 Worked-Out Exercises m. Now f(x) E F[x] C F(6)[x]. Thus, a satisfies a polynomial of degree m over
F(b). Hence, [F(6)(a) : F(b)] < m. Since F(6)(a) = F(a,6), [F(a,6) : F(6)] <
0 Exercise 1 Show that the polynomial x2 — 7 is irreducible in Q(\/3) [z].
m. Now [F(a,6) : F] = [F(a,6) : F(6)][F(6) : F] < mn. Also,
Solution: Suppose z2 — 7 = (x — (a+by/Sffix — (c+cA/3)), where a, b, c, d E
Q. Then x2 — 7 = x2 ~ ((a+ c) + (b + d)\/3)x + (ac + 3bd + ady/3 + b&Jty. This [F(a,b) : F] = [F(a,b) : F(b)][F(b) : F] = [F(a,b) : F(b)]n.

implies that Thus, n|[F(a,6) : F]. Similarly, m|[F(a, b) : F]. Since m and n are relatively
(a + c) + (b + d)\/3 = 0 prime, mn|[F(a,b) : F]. Therefore, [F(a,6) : F] > m,n. Consequently, [F(a,b) :
ac + Sbd + ad\/3 + bcy/3 = —7. F] = m,n.
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21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 456 21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 457

(ii) Let F = Q, a = 26, and b = 2*. Then a is algebraic over F of degree for some k G K. Hence, g(u,v) and p(u,t>) are relatively prime. Similarly,
6 and b is algebraic over F of degree 4. We claim that F(a, b) = F(2i2). Now q(u, v) and f(u,v) are relatively prime. Thus, p(u,v) divides u and f(u, v)
b = (2^)3 G F(2^) and a = (2n)2 G F(2^). Thus, F(a, 6) C F(2w). Now divides u by Eq. (21.3). Hence,
2^ = 24_6 = 24(2e)_1 e F(a,b). Hence, F(a,b) = F(2^). Since a;12 — 2 is
either p(u,v) = k^u or p(iz,tj) = &i, (21.5)
the minimal polynomial of 2^, [F(2^) : F] = 12 ± 24 = 4 • 6.
either f(u, v) = kzu or /(u,^) = kz (21.6)
Exercise 5 Consider the unique factorization domain F[t], where F is a
field and t is transcendental over F. Show that the polynomial x2+tx+t G for some k-^kz G K. Suppose that p(u,v) = k\u and f(u,v) = kzu. Then
F(t)[x] is irreducible over F(t). Also, show that x2 + tx + t € F(x)[t] is substituting into Eq. (21.4) we obtain
irreducible over F(x). vq(u, v)g(u, v) = k\ug{u, v) + kzuq(u, v).
Solution: Now t / l,t|t, but t2 X t. Note t is prime in F[t\. Thus, x2 +
Thus,
tx + t G E(t)[x] is irreducible over F(t) by Eisenstein’s criterion. If we consider vq(u,v)g(u,v) = k-[ukq(u,v) + kzuq(u,v).
x2 + tx + t as a polynomial in t over F(x), then x2 4- tx + t = (x + l)t + x2. It
follows that Eisenstein’s criterion does not apply. However, since (x + l)t + x2 Hence, vg(u,v) = (k\k + kz)u. However, this contradicts the algebraic inde­
is of degree 1 in t, it is irreducible over F(x).
pendence of u, v over K. Substituting the remaining possibilities in Eqs. (21.5)
and (21.6) into Eq. (21.4), we also obtain a contradiction of the algebraic
Exercise 6 Let K[u,v] denote the polynomial ring in two algebraic indepen­ independence of u, v over K. Thus, x2 + vx + u is irreducible over F.
dent indeterminates u, v over the field K. Let F denote the field of quo­
tients K(u,v) of K[u, v]. Prove that the polynomial x2 + vx + u is irre­ Exercise 7 Let F = K(x,y), where K is a field and x,y are algebraically
independent indeterminates over K. Show that F K(x)K(y)y where
ducible over F.
= {Y,i(Pi(x)/qi(x)}{u i{y')/vi^y')') \ Pi(x),qi{x) € K[x],
Solution: Suppose x2 + vx -I- u is reducible over F. Then
Ui(y),Vi(.y) € 0,^(y) / 0}.

x2 + V X + u =
\ q(u,v)J \ g(u,v)J Solution: Now £ K(x)K(y) else = Q2i(fi(x)9Ay))/h(x)k(.y'),
after obtaining a common denominator. Thus,
where p(u,v), q(u,v), g(u,v) 6 K[u, v]. We may assume that p(u, v) and
q(u,v) are relatively prime in K[u, u] and also f(u,v) and g{u, v) are relatively = (x + y')(^(fi(x')gi(y')y
).
prime in K\u, f]. Now i

v)g(u, v) = p(u, v)f(u, v). (21.3)

This implies that x+y divides h(x)fc(?/). Hence, x+y divides h(x) or k(y) since
x+y is prime in the UFD K[x,y], a contradiction of the algebraic independence
Hence, g(u,v) divides p(u,v) divides ug(u,v), q(u,v) divides f(u, v), of x, y over K.
and f(u,v) divides uq(u,v). Also,
21.1.2 Exercises
v = p(u,v) +
q(u,v') g(u,v\ 1. Show that Q(v/3, — \/3) = Q(\/3)«

Consequently, 2. Let F/K be a field extension. Show that [F : K] = 1 if and only if

F = K.
vq(u, v)g(u, v) = p(u, v)g(u, v) + q(u, v)f(u, v). (21-4)
3. Consider the field extension R/Q.
Therefore, g(u,v) divides q(u,v) and q(u,v) divides g(u,v). Thus,
(i) Show that 7r2 is transcendental over Q.
g{u,v) = kq(u,v) (ii) Show that y/Ir is transcendental over Q.
“Pu*lc_ TfrLa£kjc_nija±lcja_L PkyALC.1 7flxL£ft.cj^txL£LCXLL ~P
21.1. ALGEBRAIC EXTENSIONS 458 21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 459

4. Consider the field extension R/Q Show that 7r — 3 is transcendental over 21. Let F/K be a field extension and R be a ring such that K C R C F.
Q Prove that if every element of R is algebraic over TV, then R is a field.

5. Consider the field extension R/Q. Show that tv is transcendental over 22. Let F/K be a field extension and u, v E F.
Q(x/2). (i) Prove that K(u,u + v) = K(u,v).
6. Consider the field extension R/Q. Show that tv + y/2 is transcendental (ii) If u and u + v are algebraic over K, prove that v) : K] is finite
over Q. and v is algebraic over K.

7. Let F/K be a field extension such that [F : K] < oo. Let p(x) be an 23. Answer the following statements true or false. If the statement is true,
irreducible polynomial in . Suppose p(c) = 0 for some c E F. Prove prove it. If it is false, give a counterexample.
that degp(z) divides [F : K]. (i) Let F/K be a field extension and L be an intermediate field of F/K.
Let V be a basis of F/L such that 1 € V and U be a basis of L/K such
8. Find. [Q(^5) : Q],
that 1 EU. Then U U V is linearly independent over K.
9. Show that Q(v/3 - a/5) = Q(x/3, a/5). Find [Q(x/3 - %/5) : Q]. (ii) Let F/K be a field extension and L be an intermediate field of F/K.
10. Show that the polynomial x2 — 5 is irreducible over Q(\/2). Let V be a basis of F/L and U be a basis of L/K. Then U U V is a basis
of F/K.
11. Find the minimal polynomial of + x/5 over Q. (iii) Let F/K be a field extension and c, d E F. If 7f(c,d) = AT(c), then
d = /(c) for some polynomial f(x) E .
12. Let c = -^3. Show that Q(c) = Q(c2).

13. Find [Q(x/2,a/5) : Q(a/2)], [Q(\/2,x/5) : Q], a basis for Q(x/2,x/5)/ 21.2 Splitting Fields
Q(x/2), and a basis for Q(V/2) x/5)/Q-
Here we give some results concerning the existence of field extensions which are
14. Let F/K be a field extension and c E F be algebraic over K. Let f(x) E generated by roots of polynomials. These results are basic to Galois theory.
K[x]. Show that /(c) is algebraic over K. Consider the polynomial ring over the field K. Let f(x) E K[x]. In the
quotient ring K[x]/ (/(x)), we let g(x) denote the coset g(x) + (/(x)). Thus,
15. Prove that if [F : K] =p,pa prime, then F/K has no proper intermediate
if g(x) — 52?=o then by the definition of addition and multiplication of
fields.
cosets, we have that g(x) =
16. Let L and M be intermediate fields of the field extension F/K. Suppose
Theorem 21.2.1 (Kronecker) Let K be a. field. If f(x) is a. nonconstant
that [L : K] is a prime. Prove that either L P M = K or L C M.
polynomial in A"[x], then there exists a field extension F/K such that F contains
17. Let F/K be a field extension, f(x) be a nonzero polynomial in K[z], and a. root of f(x).
c E F. If /(x) is algebraic over K, prove that c is algebraic over K.
Proof. Since K[x] is a unique factorization domain, there exist irreducible
18. Let F/K be a field extension such that [F : K] = p, p a prime. Prove polynomials fi(xfi - -., fn(x) £ such that f(x) = /i(z) • • • fn(x)- Thus, a
that if c E F, c £ K, then F = K(c). root of any fi(x), i = 1,2,..., n, is a root of /(x). Hence, it suffices to prove the
theorem for /(x) irreducible in K[x]. The ideal (/(a?)) is maximal in AT[x] and
19. Let F/K be a field extension and a, b E F be algebraic over K. If a has
so F = K[x\/ (/(^)) is a field. Let a be the natural homomorphism of AT[x]
degree m over K and 6^0 has degree n over K, prove that the elements
a + 5, ab, a — 6, ab~x have degree at most mn over K. onto K[x]/ (/(z)). Since KC\(f(x)} = {0}, a maps K one-one into F. Thus, say,
KCF, that is, we identify k € K with k in F. Hence, a{f(xf) = f(x) — f(x),
20. Prove that \/2 + y/3, \/2 — \/3 have degree 4 over Q and that v/2v/3, where /(x) = /(x) + (/(^)) and x = x + (/(z)) • Now a(/(x)) = 0 and so
x/2/a/3 have degree 2 over Q. Find the minimal polynomials of these /(x) = 0. Therefore, x is a root of f(x). ■
elements over Q.
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21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 460 21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 461

The field extension F/K in Theorem 21.2.1 has some interesting proper­ for finding s(a?) and t(x) is described below. Now by repeated, use of the division
ties. Consider the subring F[x] of F. Then = £2=0^^ for algorithm,, we have
kix* and so a maps K[x] onto K[x]. Since a also maps JC[a?] onto
x4 — 3 = a?(a?3 4- x 4- 1) 4- (—a:2 — x — 3)
F, we have F — F[x] = K(x). Thus, for f(x) irreducible in K[z], we have
by Theorem 21.1.14 that [F : K] = n and {l,a?,... ,a?n-1} is a basis of F/K, a;3 4- x 4- 1 = (—x 4- 1)(—x2 — x — 3) + (—x 4- 4)
where n = deg f(x). —x2 — x — 3 = \x + 5)(—x 4- 4) 4- (—23)
-x 4- 4 = (^a?-^)(-23) + 0.
Example 21.2.2 a;2 4-1 is irreducible in R[rr]. Now C = R/ (a:2 + 1) = R[a?] =
{a 4- bx | a, b E R} is a field, where x = x 4- (x2 4- l). Since x2 = —1, we may Thus, by back substitution, we obtain

call C the field of complex numbers. We may think ofx as i. -23 = —a:2 — a; — 3 — (a? 4-5)(—a: 4-4)
—23 = —x2 — a; — 3 — (a: 4- 5)[a?3 4- x 4-1 — (—x 4- 1)(—x2 — x — 3)]
Example 21.2.3 Consider the polynomial a:4 — 3 E Q[rr]. By Eisenstein’s = (—x2 — 4a: 4- 6)(—x2 — x — 3) — (x 4- 5)(a?3 4- x 4-1)
criterion, a:4 — 3 is irreducible in Q[a?]. Set A = x 4- (a:4 — 3) in the field = (—x2 — 4x 4- 6) [a?4 — 3 — x(x3 4- x 4- 1)] — (x 4- 5)(z3 4- x 4-1)
Q[a?]/ (a?4 -3). Then = (—a?2 — 4a? 4- 6) (a;4 — 3) 4- (a?3 4- 4a;2 — 7a? — 5) (a:3 + x 4- 1).

Q[ar] / (i4 - 3^ = Q(A) = {a + bX + cA2 + d\3 \a,b,c,de Q} This implies that

1 = a?2 - 4a: 4- 6)(a?4 - 3) 4- (—4- 4a?2 — 7a? - 5)(a?3 4- a? 4- 1).

and {1, A, A2, A3} is a. basis of Q(A) over Q. Let us multiply two elements of Z<j

Q(A) and determine the form, a 4- bX + cA2 -I- dA3 for their product. Consider Therefore,
(1 4- A + A3) and (1 4- A2). Then r x 1 3 4 2 7 5
17 23 23 23 23
(1 + A + A3)(l + A2) = 1 + A 4- A2 + 2A3 4- A5.
Consequently,

Now
1 4- x + x2 4- 2a?3 + x5 = x(x4 — 3) 4- 1 + 4a: 4- x2 + 2a:3
Since X is a root of a:4 — 3 in Q(A), we know by Corollary 14.1.10 that x — A
using the division algorithm,. Thus,
divides a:4 — 3 over Q(A). In fact, a?4 — 3 = (a: — A)(a;3 4- Aa?2 4- A2a? 4- A3). We
1 +A + A2 + 2A3 + A5 = A(A4 - 3) + 1 4- 4A + A2 4- 2A3 know there exists a field Q(A)(A2), where A2 is a root o/a?34-Aa?24-A2a?4-A3 over
= A • 0 + 1 + 4A + A2 4- 2A3. Q(A) by Theorem, 21.2.1. Over the field Q(A)(A2), a;3 4- Aa?2 4- A2a? 4- A3 factors
into {x — A2)^(a?), where q(x) has degree 2. There exists a, field Q(A)(A2)(A3),
Hence, where A3 is a root of q(x), and over the field Q(A)(A2(As), g(a?) fa,ctors into
(1 + A 4- A3)(l + A2) = 1 + 4A + A2 + 2A3. (a: — A3)(a: — A4). Thus,
Let us find (1 4- A 4- A3)-1. Since x4 — 3 is irreducible over Q, the gcd of x4 — 3 x4 — 3 = (a; — A) (x — A2)(a? — X^x — A4)
and x3 4- x 4- 1 is 1. Therefore, there exist s(a?), t(a?) E Q[a?] such that
over Q(A)(A2)(A3)(A4). In this particular example, we can take A2 = —A a,nd
1 = s(a?)(a?4 — 3) + t(a?)(l 4- x 4- a:3). so Q(A) = Q(A)(A2). Hence,

Q(A,A2,A3,A4) = Q(A,A3).
Thus,
1 = s(A)(A4 - 3) 4- t(A)(l + A + A3) Now over Q(A),
1 = 0 4-t(A)(1 4-A 4-A3). a?4 — 3 = (a? — A)(x 4- A)(a:2 4- A2).
Hence, t(A) = (1 4- A 4- A3)-1. We have not really calculated tfiXfi however. To Also, x2 4- A2 is irreducible over Q(A), a, fact, we leave as an exercise. Thus,
do this calculation, we must know the exact form, of s(x) andt(x). The method [Q(A) : Q] = 4 and [Q(A)(A3) : Q(A)] = 2. Hence, [Q(A)(A3) : Q] = 8.
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21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 462 21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 463

Example 21.2.3 leads us to believe that given any polynomial f(x) in a By Theorem 21.2.6, the intermediate field K(ci, c2, ..., cn) of E/K is a split­
polynomial ring K[x] over a field K, there exists a field extension F/K such ting field for /(x) over K. ■
that f(x) factors completely into linear factors. This is indeed the case, as we
will presently show. The intermediate field Q(v/"3, i\/2>) of C/Q is a splitting field for x4 — 3
over Q. The field Q(A, A3) of Example 21.2.3 is also a splitting field for x4 — 3
Definition 21.2.4 Let K be a field. A polynomial f(x) in JC[x] is said, to over Q. However, we cannot conclude that Q(v^3, i\/T) = Q(A, A3). Hence,
split over a field S D K if f(x) can be factored as a product of linear factors splitting fields for a given polynomial over a field are not unique. We will show,
in S[x]. A field S containing K is said, to be a. splitting field for f(x) over K however, that they are unique up to isomorphism.
if f(x) splits over S, but over no proper intermediate field of S/K.
Theorem 21.2.8 Let a be an isomorphism, of the field K onto the field K'.
Example 21.2.5 The field of complex numbers C is a. splitting field for the Let p(x) = ko kyx + fc2x2 + • • • + knxn be an irreducible polynomial in Jf[x]
polynomial x2 +1 over R. This follows since x2 +1 = (x + i)(x — i) in C[x] and of degree n, c be a root of p(x) in some field extension of K, a.nd p'(y) =
C/R h. as no proper interm.ed.iate fields because [C : R] = 2. (// C D L D R, a(ko) 4- a(kf)y + ck(A;2)?/2+ • • • + oc(kn)yn be the corresponding polynomial in
where L is an intermediate field of C/R, then 2 = [C : L][L : R] a,nd so either Then pf(y) is irreducible in Fz[?/]. If c' is a root of p'fy) in some field
[C : L] = 1 or [L : R] = 1. Thus, either C — L or L = R.) Note that C is not extension of K', then a can be extended, to an isomorphism a' of K(c) onto
the splitting field of x2 + 1 over Q since x2 + 1 splits over Q(z) C C. K'(d) with az(c) = c'. a' is the only extension of a such that of(c) = c'.
Theorem 21.2.6 Let K be a field and /(x) be a polynomial in [x] of degree
n. Let F/K be a field, extension. If Proof. By an argument similar to the one used in the proof of Theorem
14.1.14, a can be uniquely extended to an isomorphism a of F[x] onto K'[y]
f(x) = c(x - Ci)(x - c2) • • • (x - Cn) in F[x], so that for every polynomial bo + b^x + 62x2 +-- 1- bmxm G K[x],

then F(ci, c2,..., cn) is a splitting field for f(x) over K. «(&0 + biz + fox2 4--- H bTnxm') = a(6o) + a(61)y + cv(52)?/2 -I--- F a(firn)yrn.

We leave to the reader the verification that pz(|/) is irreducible in K'[y\.

Proof. Since ci, c2,..., cn are the roots of /(x), /(x) splits over F(ci, c2,...,
Let ft be the natural homomorphisms of K[x] onto K[x\/ {p{x)} and fi' be the
c^). Let L be an intermediate field of K(ci, c2,..., cn)/K such that J(x) splits
natural homomorphisms of K'[y\ onto K'[y\/ • Then Ker fi = Ker fi' o a.
over L. Since K[x] is a UFD, there is only one way /(x) can split over L,
Hence, there exists an isomorphism a* of K[x\/ (p(x)) onto K'[y\/ (p'fy)) such
namely, /(x) = c(x — Ci)(x — c2) • • ■ (x — cn). Thus, Q, c2,..., cn € L, whence
that P' oa = a* op. By Theorem 21.1.11 and Corollary 21.1.12, there exist iso­
L D F(ci, c2,..., Cn). Hence, K(ci, c2,..., cn) is the smallest intermediate field
morphisms 7 and 7' of K[x]/ (p(x)) onto K(c) and K'[y]/ (p'(y)} onto Kfd),
over which /(x) splits. ■
respectively. Thus, a' is the map 7' o a* o 7_1. The situation is described by
the following diagram:
The field Q(A, A3) of Example 21.2.3 is a splitting field for x4 — 3 over Q.
We now prove the existence of splitting fields.
K[x]----
Theorem 21.2.7 Let K be a field and /(x) be a nonconstant polynomial over
K. Then there is a splitting field for /(x) over K. K[x\______ Q* K'[y\
(p'Cv))
Proof. If deg/(x) = 1, then K is a splitting field for /(x) over K. Assume
/ It'
K(c)-------- ^F'(c')
the theorem is true for all polynomials of degree n—1 (> 1). Suppose deg /(x) =
n. There exists a field D K such that K-y contains a root ci of /(x) by Let a" be any other extension of a to an isomorphism of K{c) onto /C'(c')
Theorem 21.2.1. Thus, /(x) = (x — Ci)/i(x) in K\[x] and deg/i(x) = n — 1. such that □'"(c) = c'. Now {1, c,..., cn_1} is a basis for K{d)/K and {1, c',...,
By the induction hypothesis, there exists a field extension E/K\ such that c'71-1} is a basis for K'^d^/K1. We have that
/i(x) splits in E[x). Thus, /(x) splits in E[x], say,
a"(£ kid) - £ a"(^)a"(?) = £ kid).
/(x) = c(x - cj)(x - c2) • • • (x - Cn).
i=0 i=0 _ i=0 i=0 _
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21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 464 21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 465

Hence, a" = a'. ■ We ask the reader to prove that the notion of conjugates defines an equiv­
alence relation on F.
Corollary 21.2.9 Let E/K be a field extension and p(x) be an irreducible
polynomial in K[x]. If a, b E E are roots ofp(x), then K{a) ~ K(b). Example 21.2.13 Consider the field extension C/R. Let a,b E R. Then a +
bi o.nd its complex conjugate a — bi are conjugates in the sense of Definition
Proof. Let K = K' and a be the identity map. ■ 21.2.12. This is obvious if b = 0. Suppose b j=. 0. Then a + bi R. Let
f(x) = x2 + 2ax + (a2 + 52). Since a + bi R, [R(a + bi) : R] = 2. Now a + bi
From Corollary 21.2.9, we have Q(v//3) Q(i4/3) in Example 21.2.3. is a root of ffx) and f(x) must be irreducible over R. a — bi is also a, root of
/(*)•
Theorem 21.2.10 Let a be an isomorphism, from the field K onto the field
K'. Let
In certain cases, the following theorem is useful in determining jjhe irre­
f(x) = ko + k\x + kzx2 H--- 1- knxn ducibility of a polynomial.

be a polynomial in and Theorem 21.2.14 Let F be a field. Let p be a, prime in Z and a G F. Then
the polynomial xp — a is reducible over F if and only if xp — a has a root in F.
f(y) = a(k0) + a(fci)i/ + a(fe2)j/2 4-- + a(kn)yn
Proof. Suppose f(x) = xp — a 6 F[x] is reducible. Let f(x) = g(x)h(x) for
be the corresponding polynomial in K'[y]. some g(x), h(x) E F[x], degp(x) = m, 0 < m < p, and 0 < degh(rr) < p. Since
If S is a splitting field for f(x) over K and S' is a splitting field for f'(y)
f(x) is monic, we can take g(x) to be monic. By factoring g(x) as a product of
over K', then a can be extended to an isomorphism a' of S onto S'.
linear factors in a splitting field of g(x) over F, we see that the constant term
of g(x) is (—l)md for some d E. F. Since gcd(m,p) = 1, there exist integers s
Proof. The proof is by induction on deg/(z). If deg/(x) = 1, then K = S and t such that 1 = sm + tp. By Theorem 21.2.1, there is a field extension of
and K' = S'. In this case, we can take a' = a. Assume the theorem is true F which contains a root of f(x). Let b be such a root of f(x).
for all polynomials of degree less than n (the induction hypothesis). Suppose Case 1: Suppose the characteristic of F is p. Since b is a root of f(x),
deg f(x) = n. Extend a to an isomorphism a of K[x] onto E'[y] as in Theorem bP = a. Thus,
21.2.8. Let p(x) be an irreducible factor of f(x) and ci E S' be a root of (x — b)p = xp — t? = xp — a
p(x). Let Cj E S' be a root of a(p(x)) = p(y)- Then by Theorem 21.2.8, a
can be extended to an isomorphism aj of if(ci) onto K'fdfi). Extend cei to and all the roots of f(x) equal b. Now every root of g(x) is also a root of f(x).
an isomorphism of of K(ci)[z] onto K'(cj_)[?/]. Now f(x) = (x — cf)fx(x) in Thus, all the m roots of g(x) are equal to b. Hence, bm = d. Now
if(ci)[z] and f’(y) = (y-dfiff^y) in K(ci)[?/], where f[(y) = aT(/i(z)). Clearly
ds = bms = b1^1 = bb~pt = ba-1.
S' is a splitting field for /i(x) over A?(ci) and S' is a splitting field for f[(y)
over K (c1). Since deg/i(z) = n — 1 = deg/{(?/), o?i can be extended to an Hence, b = dsa1 E F and so f(x) has a root in F.
isomorphism of S onto S' by the induction hypothesis. ■ Case 2: Suppose that F has characteristic 0. Let c be any other root of
f(x). Then
Corollary 21.2.11 Let f(x) E -Ff[z]. Any two splitting fields for f(x) over K
are isomorphic.
Hence, c = bu, where u = c“p+15p_1 and up = 1. From this, it follows that the
roots of f(x) are of the form
Proof. Let S and S' be two splitting fields for f(x) over K. In Theorem
21.2.10, take K = K' and a the identity mapping on K. ■
5, bu^,..., bup—j,

Definition 21.2.12 Let F/K be a field extension and a, b E F. Then a and b where u% = 1. As in case 1, we have that the product of the roots of g(x) is
are called conjugates if a a,nd b are roots of the same irreducible polynomial
over K. d ~ bmUiU2 • • • Wm-l = b^v.
~Ph-y-Ai.cS.
21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 466 21.2. SPLITTING FIELDS 467

where vp = 1. Now 1 = sm + tp implies that Solution: (i) Let /(a;) = x4 +1. Then /(a?) = (x2 + y/2x +1)(a:2 — \/2x +1)
over Q(%/2). Therefore, the roots of f(x) are
bsrn = v~sds = b1-^ = ba-1.
-\/2 + Z\/2 y^2 ±3^/2
Therefore, b = v~sdsat. It then follows that
2 ’ 2
a = IP = (y~sdsalY = v~sp{dsal}p = (cFa'y. Let S be the splitting field of f(x) over Q. We claim that S = Q(\/2, z). Now

Thus, dsat EFisa root of f(x). +V2-_zv/2

The converse follows from Corollary 14.1.10. ■
and
21.2.1 Worked-Out Exercises V2i = + _ + 7^ 6
0 Exercise 1 Find a splitting field S of x4 — 10z2 + 21 over Q. Find [S : Q]
and a basis for S'/Q. This implies that z = G S. It now follows that Q(v/2, z) C S. Clearly S C
Q(\/2, z). Consequently, S = Q(\/2, z). Now x2 — 2 is the minimal polynomial
Solution: Note that x4 — 10a;2 + 21 = (a?2 — 3) (a:2 — 7) over Q. Therefore, a of a/2 over Q and x2 +1 is the minimal polynomial of z over Q. In fact, x2 +1 is
splitting field S of x4 — 10a:2 + 21 over Q is Q(\/3, i/7). Hence, [S : Q] = 4 and the minimal polynomial of z over Q(\/2). Thus, [S': Q] = [S’ : Q(v/2)][Q(v/2) •
{1, x/3, a/7, a/21} is a basis for S/Q, as can be seen from Worked-Out Exercise
Q] = 2 • 2 = 4.
2 (page 455). (ii) Let f(x) = a;6 + x3 + 1. Now (xQ — 1) = (a:3 — l)(a;6 + a;3 + 1). The
roots of (a;9 — 1) are 1,£, £2,..., £8 and 1,£3,£6are the roots of (a;3 — 1), where
0 Exercise 2 Show that the splitting field of xp — 1 over Q is of degree p — 1, £ = e^. Hence, £, £2, £4, £5, £7, £8 are the roots of a:6 + a;3 + 1. Therefore,
where p is a prime.
S = Q(£, C2> C5) C7) £8) = Q(C) is the splitting field of a:6 + x3 + 1 over Q.
Solution: Let f(x) = xp — 1 6 Q[x]. Now f(x) = (x — l)p(x), where
Since a:6 + a;3 + 1 is irreducible over Q, [S': Q] =6.
g(x) = xp_1 + xp~2 + • —I- x + 1. Also,
21.2.2 Exercises
—1
p(x) = 1. Prove that the polynomial pf(y) in Theorem 21.2.8 is irreducible in N'[y].
a: — 1
Hence, 2. Let F/K be an algebraic field extension. Define ~ on F by for all a,
b e F, a ~ b if and only if a and b are conjugates. Prove that ~ is an
equivalence relation.

3. (i) Show that the polynomials x2 — 2x — 1 and x2 — 2 have the same

Now since p is prime, p|(p) for all 1 < r < p— 1. Also, p2 does not divide (p£j). splitting field over Q.
Therefore, by Eisenstein’s criterion, g(x + 1) is irreducible over Q. Thus, g(x) (ii) Find a pair of polynomials in Q[x], other than the pair given in (i),
2iri n which have the same splitting field over Q.
is irreducible over Q. Let £ = e p , where z2 = -1. Then the roots of /(z)
are 1,£,£2,... , £p_1 and the roots of g(x) are £,£2,... ,£p_1. Now the splitting
4. Find a splitting field S of the polynomial a?3 — 3 over Q. Find [S' : Q] and
field of f(x) is S — Q(l,£, — Q(0- Also, g(x) is the minimal
a basis for S/Q.
polynomial of £ over Q. Hence, [S' : Q] ~p — 1.
5. Find a splitting field S of the polynomial x2+z + [1] over Z5. Find [S : Z5]
<0> Exercise 3 Find the splitting field of the following polynomials over Q. and a basis for S'/Zs.
(i) a:4 + 1.
6. Find a splitting field S of the polynomial x2 + [1] over Z2. Find [S’ : Z2]
(ii) a;6 + a;3 + 1. and a basis for S'/Z2-
TfLaJJccj^xL^LG-aJ. ~Plt-y.Al.c-A.
21.3. ALGEBRAICALLY CLOSED FIELDS 468 21.3. ALGEBRAICALLY CLOSED FIELDS 469

7. Find a splitting field S of the polynomial x4 — 7x2 + 10 over Q. Find Definition 21.3.1 A field K is called algebraically closed if for all f(x) G
[S : Q] and a basis for S/Q. K[x] with deg/(z) > 1, f(x) has a root in K.

8. Prove that Q(-j + ^i) is a splitting field of the polynomial x4 + x2 + 1

Theorem 21.3.2 Let K be afield. The following conditions are equivalent.
over Q. Find [Q(—5 + ^i) : Q]-
(i) K is algebraically closed.
(ii) Every irreducible polynomial in is of degree 1.
9. Let f(x) G K[a?], a polynomial ring over the field K. Let S be a splitting
(iii) Let f(x) G K[x], deg f(x) > 1. Then f(x) splits as a product of linear
field for f(x) over K. Prove that for any field £, S D L D K, S is a
factors over K.
splitting field of f(x) over L.
(iv) If F/K is an algebraic field extension, then F = K.
10. Let /(z),g(r), and h(x) G AT[z], a polynomial ring over the field K.
Suppose that S is a splitting field of f(x) over K and f(x) = g(x)h(x).
Proof. (i) =^(ii) Let p(x) G AT[z] and p(x) be irreducible. By (i), there exists
Prove that S contains a splitting field of g(x) over K.
a G K such that p(a) = 0. Then p(x) = (x — a)g(x) for some g(x) G K[x].
11. Let f(x),g(x) G A?[x], a polynomial ring over the field K. Suppose that Since p(x) is irreducible, g(x) G K. Hence, degp(z) = 1.
g(x) = f(ax + &), where 0 / a,b G K. Prove that f(x) and g(x) have (ii) =>(iii) Let f(x) G and deg/(x) > 1. Let /(x) = pi(x) ‘ • ps(x),
equal splitting fields over K. where p-t(x) E K\x\ is irreducible, 1 < i < s. Then degp*(z) = 1, 1 < i < s.
We may write pi(x) = kfix — af), where kz, ai G K, 1 < i < s. Let k = • ks.
12. Prove that if f(x) is a polynomial in X [x] of degree n, then [S' : K] < n!, Then f(x) = k(x — cti) • • • (x — as). Thus, f(x) splits as a product of linear
where S' is a splitting field of f(x) over K. factors over K.
(iii) =>(iv) Let F/K be an algebraic field extension. Let c G F and let
13. Let K be a field and fa (x), f2(x),..., fn(x) E K[rr] be such that deg fa(x)
p(x) G JC[x] be the minimal polynomial of c over K. Since p(z) is irreducible,
> 1, 1 < i < n. Show that there exists a field extension F/K such that degp(z) = 1 by (iii). Therefore, p(x) = ax+b G Sincep(c) = 0, ac+6 = 0.
each fi(x) has a root in F. Thus, c = —a’1 b E K. Hence, K = F.
14. Let F be a field of prime characteristic p and a G F. Prove that xp — x — a (iv) =>(i) Let f(x) G K[x], deg f(x) > 1. There exists a field extension F/K
is reducible over F if and only if xp — x — a has a root in F. such that F has a root of /(x), say, a. Then K(a)/K is an algebraic field ex­
tension. Therefore, K(a) = K and so a G K. Thus, K is algebraically closed. ■
15. Answer the following statements, true or false. If the statement is true,
prove it. If .it is false, give a counter example. We now prove the existence of an algebraically closed field. The following
(i) Let f(x) be an irreducible polynomial of degree n over a field K of proof is due to Artin.
characteristic 0. Let S = A'fci, C2,..., cn) be a splitting field of f(x) over
K, where ci, C2,... ,Cn are the roots of f(x). Then AT(c2,..., cn) C S. Theorem 21.3.3 Let K be a field. Then there exists an algebraically closed
(ii) The polynomial f(x) = x5 — x — 30 is reducible over Q. field F such that K is a, subfield of F.

(iii) C is a splitting field of some polynomial over Q.

Proof. We first construct an extension F\/K such that if f(x) G K[x] and
deg f{x) > 1, then fax') has a root in F\. Let AS be the set of all polynomials
21.3 Algebraically Closed Fields in 7C[z] of degree > 1. Let S be a set which is in one-one correspondence with
K,. For f(x) G /C, let xj be the corresponding element in S.
The most important result in Steinitz’s work in 1910 was his proof of the Consider the polynomial ring K[S]. Let I be the ideal of /C[S] generated
existence and uniqueness of an algebraic closure of a field. In this section1, we
by all polynomials /(a?/) in K[S]. We claim that I 7^ A?[S]. Suppose that
present these results. I = JC[S]. Then there exists gi E AT [S'] such that
1This section may be skipped without any discontinuity. The only place this section is
needed is in Exercise 4 (Section 24.1). gifltxh) + ^2/2(^/2) + • • • + gnfntxfj = L (21.7)
21.3. ALGEBRAICALLY CLOSED FIELDS 470 21.3. ALGEBRAICALLY CLOSED FIELDS 471

Write Xi = Xf., 1 < i < n. Since the polynomials gt, 1 < i < n, involve only Proof. Let f(x) = aQ+aiz + - • • + G F[x] and fa(x) = cr(a0)4- <7(ai)z+
a finite number of indeterminates, say, x-y,X2, ..., xm, with m > n, we may • • • + a(an)xn E L[x]. Since L is algebraically closed there exists a root b of
write Eq. (21.7) as f°(x) in L. Since a is algebraic over F, F(a) = F[a] by Corollary 21.1.12. Thus,
if u G F(a), then u = cq -F c-^a +-- 1- ckak G F[a]. Define g : F(a) L by
n
, *^2j - • • 5 ^rri) fii^'i) — 1- (21.8)
77(c0 + ci a 4--- H ckak} = a{c^) 4- cr(ci)6 4--- 1- v(ck)bk
i=l

By Exercise 13 (page 468), there exists a finite extension L/K such that each for all co + Cia 4--- h ckak G F(a). Suppose co 4- cia 4— • + ckak = do 4- d^a 4-
polynomial ft, 1 < i < n, has a root in L. Let Ci be a root of in L, 1 < i < n. • • ■ + dsas. Let 'yfx) = co + c^x +-- 1- ckxk and y'(x) = do 4- d±x 4- ■ • • 4- dsxs.
Let Ci = 0 for n < i < m. Substituting Ci for xz, 1 < i < n, in Eq. (21.8), we Then (7 — 7') (a) — 0. Hence, f(x) divides (7 — y'fix). Thus, fa(x) divides
get 0 = 1, a contradiction. Hence. 1 / F[5]. (7* — 7/a)(z). Consequently, (7* — 7,tT)(6) = 0 and so cr(co) 4- cr(ci)6 + • ■ ■ +
Let M be a maximal ideal of FT [S] such that I C M. Let Fi = K[S]/M. a(ck)bk = cr(do) + cr(di)6 4- • • • 4- <r(d$)6s. Thus, g is well defined. Clearly g is
Then Fi is a field containing an isomorphic copy (K + M)/M of K. Thus, Fi an isomorphism. The number of distinct roots of f(x) in the algebraic closure
can be regarded as a field extension of K. Also, if f G K[x] and deg/(j:) > 1, of F is equal to the number of distinct roots of fa(x) in L. For any extension
then Xf + M is a root of f in F^. £ : F(a) L,£(a) is a root of /a(x). Therefore, the number of such extensions
By induction, we can form a chain of fields is equal to the number of distinct roots of f(x). ■

Fi C F2 C • • • C Fn C • • •
We close this section by showing that the algebraic closure of a field is uni­
such that every polynomial of degree > 1 in Fn has a root in Fn_|_i. Let F = que up to isomorphism. Our proof uses Zorn’s lemma while Steinitz’s original
^S=\Fn. Then F is a field. Let f G F[x]. Then f G Fn[rr] for some positive proof used the equivalent concept of the axiom of choice.
integer n. Thus f has a root in Fn+y C F. Hence, F is algebraically closed. ■
Theorem 21.3.7 Let, F/K be an algebraic field extension. Let L be an alge­
Corollary 21.3.4 Let K be a field. Then there exists an algebraic field exten­ braically closed, field and a be a,n isomorphism of K into L. Then there exists
sion F/K such that F is algebraically closed. an isomorphism, g of F into L such that g\x = cr.

Proof. By Theorem 21.3.3, there exists a field extension E/K such that E Proof. Let 5 = {(F, A) | E is a subfield of F, K C E and A : F —> L
is algebraically closed. Let F = {a G E | a is algebraic over K}. Then F/K is an isomorphism such that A|/< = cr}. Since {K,cr) E S, S / (j). Let (F,A),
is an algebraic extension. Let f(x) G F[x] and deg/(x) > 1. Then f(x) has a (F'jA') G F. Define a relation < on 5 by (F,A) < (F^A') if F C F' and
root c in E. Thus, c is algebraic over F. Since F/K is an algebraic extension, A'Ie = A. Then (S', <) is a poset. Let {(F^,Ai)}^A be a chain in S. Let
c is algebraic over K. Hence, c G F and so F is algebraically closed. ■ F = UigaF^. Then F is a field and K C F. Define A : F —»• L as follows:
Let a E E. Then a E En for some n. Define A(a) = An(a). Since {(F*, A;)}^
Definition 21.3.5 Let K be a field. A field F D K is called an algebraic
is a chain, A is an isomorphism of F into L. Hence, (F, A) G S and (F, A) is
closure of K if
an upper bound of {(Fj, Ai)}i€A- Hence, by Zorn’s lemma, S has a maximal
(i) F/K is algebraic and
element, say, (T,g). Suppose T / F. Let a E F\T. By Lemma 21.3.6, there
(ii) F is algebraically closed.
exists an isomorphism (3 : T(a) —> L such that /3\t = V- From this, it follows
For any field K, Corollary 21.3.4 guarantees the existence of an algebraic that (T(a), /?) G S, a contradiction of the maximality of (T, g). Thus, F = T. ■
closure of K.
Theorem 21.3.8 Let K be a field. Let F and F' be two algebraic closures of
Lemma 21.3.6 Let F and L be fields with L algebraically closed. Let a : F —> K. Then there exists a,n isomorphism, A of F onto F' such that A (a) = a for
L be an isomorphism of F into L. Let a be an algebraic element over F in some all a E K.
field extension of F. Let f(x) G F[x] be the minim,al polynomial of a. Then a
can be extended to an isomorphism, g of F(a) into L and the number of such Proof. Let cr : K F' be such that <r(a) = a for all a E K. Then a is
extensions is equal to the number of distinct roots of f(x). an isomorphism of K into F'. By Theorem 21.3.7, there exists an isomorphism
“Pufi-C-
21.3. ALGEBRAICALLY CLOSED FIELDS 472
Chapter 22
X : F —> F' such that A|/< = a. Now A(F) ~ F. Thus, A(F) is algebraically
closed and K C A(F). Now K C A(F) C F'. Since F'/K is algebraic, F'/A(F)
is algebraic. Thus, F' = X(F). Hence, F ~ F'. ■ Multiplicity of Roots
21.3.1 Exercises

1. If F is a field with a finite number of elements, prove that F is not

22.1 Multiplicity of Roots
algebraically closed.
In some cases, an irreducible polynomial p(x) of degree n over a field K does
not have n distinct roots in a splitting field of p(x) over K. In this chapter, we
examine this situation.
If f(x) is a polynomial over K and c is a root of f(x) in some field F
containing K, then the multiplicity of c is the largest positive integer m such
that (x — c)m divides f(x) over F.

Definition 22.1.1 Let K be a field and. p(x) be an irreducible polynomial in

K[x] of degree n. Then p(x) is called separable if it has n distinct roots in a
splitting field S of p(x) over K\ otherwise p(x) is called inseparable over K.
An arbitrary polynomial in FC[re] is called, separable if each of its irreducible
factors in K[x] is separable; otherwise it is called inseparable.

Definition 22.1.2 Let F/K be a field, extension and c be an element of F

which is algebraic over K. Then c is called separable (or separable alge­
braic) over K if its minimal polynomial over K is separable; otherwise c is
called, inseparable over K. If F/K is an algebraic extension, then F/K is
called separable (or separable algebraic) if every element of F is separable
over K] otherwise F/K is called, inseparable.

Let F/K be a field extension and L be an intermediate field of F/K. Let

c E F and suppose c is separable over K. Then c must be separable over L.
This follows since if f(x) and p(x) are the minimal polynomials of c over K
and L, respectively, then p(x)\f(x). Hence, c cannot be a multiple root of p(x)
since it is not one of f(x).

Example 22.1.3 Consider the field K(tfi where K is a field, of prim,e charac­
teristic p andt is transcendental over K. It follows that the polynomial xp—tp is

“PilTlc. TfLaJJccj^xL^LG-aJ. ~Plt-y.Al.c-A. PilTlc. TfLaJJcc^tt-oJlc-al ~Plt_yAlc_A

22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 475 22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 476

irreducible over K(tp) by Eisenstein’s criterion since tp is irreducible in and so

Now xp — tp factors into f'(x) = (x - a){(x - a)q'(x) + 2g(z)} + b

(x — tffix — t) ■ ■ - (x — t)= (x — t)p Therefore,

0 = /'(a) = b,
p times
a contradiction. Hence, h(z) = 0 and so f(x) = (z — a)2q(x). Consequently, a
over K(t). Thus, K(t) is a. splitting field for xp — tp over K(tp) and we see that
is a multiple root of f(x). ■
xp — tp has only one root in K(t), namely, t. (Since t £ N(tpfi we can also
use Theorem 21.2.14 to deduce that xp — tp is irreducible over K(tp).) Thus, Theorem 22.1.5 For any field K, an irreducible polynomial p(x) in /Cfrr] is
xp — tp, t, and K(t) are inseparable over K(tp). Note that t has multiplicity p separable if and, only ifp(x) and its form,al derivative p'(x) are relatively prime.
over K (tp).

Let K be a field and Proof. Let d(x) denote the gcd of p(x) and p'(x). Suppose p(x) is separable.
Let c be a root of p(x) in some field containing K. Then p(x) = (x — c)f(x)
/(x) = ko 4- k]X 4- ■ •• 4- knxn for some /(t) G K(c)[a:]. Since p(x) is irreducible, /(c) 0. Now p'(x) =
/(z) + (x — c)f'(x) and so p'(c) = /(c) 4-0^0. Hence, c is not a root of d(x).
be a polynomial in A?[x]. Then by the formal derivative, f\xfi of f(x) we
But every root of d(x) must be a root of p(x) since d(x)\p(x). Thus, since we
mean the polynomial
have just seen that d(x) and p(x\ have no common roots, d(x) has no roots.
f'(x) = ^ + ••• 4- ikiX^1 4- • • • 4- nknxTl~1 6 7f[x]. Therefore, d(x) = 1.
Conversely, suppose that d(x) = 1. Let c be any root of p(x). Let m denote
Let K be a field and f(x), g(x) G 7C[a;]. The following properties of formal the multiplicity of c. Then
derivatives are easily verified:
p(x) = (x- c)mf(x)
(ZW+^O))' = + g’(x),
(f(x)g(x))' = f(x)g'(x) + f'(x)g(x), over K(c) and c is not a root of f(x). Now
(kffix))1 = kf{x) for all k E K
p'(x) = m(x — c)m~1f(x) 4- (a? — c)m/z(:r)
and if f(x) = x, then f'(x) = 1. = (i-c)m_1[m/(2:) + (a:-c)/'(a:)].

Theorem 22.1.4 Let K be a field, and f(x) € K[x], f(x) 0. Let a be a root Thus, (x — c)m_1 is a common divisor of p'(x) and p(x). Hence,
of f(x) in some extension field F of K. Then a is a multiple root of f(x) if
(t — c)7n“1|d(z).
and only if f (a) = 0.
Since d(x) = 1, m = 1. Consequently, p(x) has no repeated roots. ■
Proof. Suppose a is a multiple root of f(xfi Then (x — a)2 divides f(x).
Theorem 22.1.6 For a,ny field K, an irreducible polynomial p(x) in is
Hence,
f{x) = (x- a)2g(x) separable if and, only ifp'(x) 0.

for some g(x) € F[x]. Now f'(x) = (x — a){(x — a)g'(x) 4- 2g(x)}. Therefore, Proof. Let d(x) denote the gcd of p(z) and p'(x). Suppose p(x) is separable.
f'(a) = 0. Conversely, suppose /'(a) = 0. Then deg/(x) > 2. By the division If p'(x) = 0, then d(x) = p(x) / 1, a contradiction of Theorem 22.1.5. Con­
algorithm, versely, suppose p'(x) 0. Since p(x) is irreducible, the only common divisors
f(x) = (x ~ a)2q(x) 4- h(x)
of p(x) and p\x) are 1 and p(x). Since 1 < degp'(z) < degp(z), 1 is the only
for some q(xfih(x) G F[x], where either h(x) = 0 or degh(x) < 1. Suppose common divisor of p'(x) and p(x). Hence, d(x) = 1. Thus, p(x) is separable by
h(x) 7^ 0. Since /(a) = 0, h(a) = 0. Thus, deg/i(x) = 1 and a is a root of h(x). Theorem 22.1.5. ■
Hence, h(x) = b(x — a) for some 0 / b G K. This implies that
Corollary 22.1.7 Let K be a field of characteristic 0. Then every nonconstant
f(x) = (x — a)2q(x) + b(x — a) polynomial in -?C[x] is separable.
PkyTj.c.1
“Pu^uc- Ttlxi£Jt.c^txi±(LC-aJ “
22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 477
22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 478

Proof. Let f(x) be any nonconstant polynomial in 2<[x] and p(x) = ko

Conversely, suppose K = Kp. Let F/K be an algebraic field extension.
+k]X + 4— • 4- knxn be any irreducible factor of /(x), where n > 1. Then
Let a 6 F and f(x) G K[x] be the minimal polynomial of a. Suppose /(z) is
there exists i > 0 such that kz 0 0. Hence, iki ± 0 since K has characteristic
not separable. Then by Theorem 22.1.9, f(x) = g(xp) for some g(x) G jFC[x].
0. Thus, p'(x) 0 and so p(z) is separable by Theorem 22.1.6. Hence, f(x) is
Hence,
separable. ■ f(x) = ao + a\xp H--- I- akXpk,

Example 22.1.8 Consider the irreducible polynomial p(x) = xp — tp over ai G K, 1 < i < k. Since K = Kp, a^ = kF for some fa € K, 1 < i < k.
K(tp) of Example 22.1.3. Then pfx) = pxp_1 = 0. Thus, xp — tp is insepa­ Therefore,
rable over K(tp). f(x) = (fe0 + 6iiH-- + bkxk)p,

a contradiction, since f(x) is irreducible over K. Hence, /(z) is separable.

Theorem 22.1.9 Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0. Then an irreducible
Thus, F/K is a separable extension. Consequently, K is perfect. ■
polynomial p(x) = ko 4- k]X 4- kzx2 + • • • 4- knxn over K is inseparable if and.
only if p(x) = q(xp) for some q(xp) G Jf[xp]. Example 22.1.13 Let K be a finite field of characteristic p. Define a : K
Kp by cr(a) = ap. Then a is a, hom,om.orphism.. Suppose that a (a) = cr(b). Then
Proof. Clearly p'(x) = 0 if and only if iki — 0 for alii = 1,2,..., n. Thus, ap = bP and so (a — b)p = 0. Since K is a. field., K has no nonzero nilpotent
p'(x) = 0 if and only if p\i for those i such that ki 0. Hence, p\x) = 0 if and elements. Thus, a = b and so a is one-one. Hence, |7C| = |cr(JC)| < |KP| < |A”|
only if p(x) — q(xp) for some q(xp) G K[xp]. The conclusion now follows from and. so = \KP\. Since Kp is a subfield of K a,nd. K is finite, K = Kp. Hence,
Theorem 22.1.6. ■ 5 K is perfect. We have thus shown that every finite field is perfect.

If p(x) = ko 4- k-[X 4- k2X2 4- • • • 4- knxn is irreducible and inseparable over

Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0. Let Kp = {ap | a 6 K}. The reader
is asked to verify in Exercise 7 (page 490) that Kp is a subfield of K. K in Theorem 22.1.9, then p(x) = ko + kpxp 4- • • • 4- A:pm(a?p)7n = q(xp). It
may be the case that p(x) = q(xp) = s(xp2) in K[xp2]. However, there exists a
Definition 22.1.10 Let K be a field. Then K is called, perfect if every alge­ largest positive integer e such that p(x) = t,(xpe) for some t(xp&) G K[xp*]. If
braic extension of K is separable. n = degp(z), then pefn.

Definition 22.1.14 Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0 and p(x) be an

Example 22.1.11 By Corollary 22.1.7, every field of characteristic 0 is per­
irreducible polynomial in Let e be the largest nonnegative integer such
fect.
that p(x) — q(xp£) for some q(xpC) G K[zpe]. Then e is called the exponent
The following theorem gives a necessary and sufficient condition for a field of inseparability of p(x) and pe is called, the degree of inseparability of
to be perfect. p(x). If n denotes the degree of p(x), then no = is called, the degree of
separability or reduced degree of p(x) over K.
Theorem 22.1.12 Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0. Then K is perfect
By Theorem 22.1.9, p(x) in Definition 22.1.14 is separable if and only if
if and only if K = Kp.
e = 0.

Proof. Suppose K is perfect. Let a G K and F be a splitting field of Theorem 22.1.15 Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0 and.
xp — a G K[x]. Then F/K is a separable extension. Let b 6 F be a root of
p{x~) = kn0(xpe)n° 4--- F kixp€ 4- ko
xp — a. Then
xp — a = (x — b)p.
be an irreducible polynomial in K[x], where e is the exponent of inseparability
Let p(x) G K[x] be the minimal polynomial of b. Then p(x) has distinct roots. If of p(x). Then the polynomial
degp(z) > 1, then since p(x)|(x — b)p, p(x) has multiple roots, a contradiction.
s(y) = knQyn° 4-- + kiy + ko€ K[y]
Hence, degp(z) = 1. This implies that b G K. Hence, a = bP G Kp. Thus,
K = Kp. is irreducible and separable over K. •
22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 479 22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 480

Proof. If s(y) = f(y)g(y) € K[?/], then p(x) = /(zpC)(7(zpe), contrary to Corollary 22.1.19 Let K be an infinite field. Let 0,1,02,...,an be elements
the fact that p(x) is irreducible in /f[x]. Thus, s(y) is irreducible in K[t/]. If in some field containing K. Suppose that ai is algebraic and O2,..-,an are
s(t/) = q(yp) for some q(yp) G K[yp], then p(x) = q(xpe+1), contrary to the separable algebraic over K. Then there exists an element c G K(ai,..., an)
maximality of e. Hence, s(?/) is separable. ■ such that K(c) ~ K(ai,... ,an), i.e., K(ai,... ,an)/K is a. simple extension.

Example 22.1.16 Consider the polynomial p(x) =■ x^p + txp + t over the Proof. The result follows by induction on n and Theorem 22.1.18. ■
field K(t), where K is q, field of characteristic p > 0 and t is transcendental
over K. By Eisenstein’s criterion, p(x) is irreducible over K(t). Now p(x) = Corollary 22.1.20 Let F/K be a field extension and the characteristic of K
(xp)2+txp+t G A(t)[z] and so p(x) is inseparable over K(t). The inseparability be 0. Let 01,02, • - • ,on G F be algebraic over K. Then K(ai,... ,an)/K is a,
exponent e of p(x) equals 1. Thus, x2 + tx + t is separable over K(t). simple extension.

Definition 22.1.17 Let F/K be a field extension. F is called a simple ex­ Proof. The proof follows by Corollaries 22.1.7 and 22.1.19. ■
tension if F = K(a) for some a G K. Such an element a is called a primitive
element. Example 22.1.21 Consider Q(a/2,2). Now 1 Thus,
Q(y/2, z) = Q(\/2 + i) by the proof of Theorem. 22.1.18, with s = 1 there.
Theorem 22.1.18 Let K be an infinite field, and K{a,b)/K be a field exten­
sion with a algebraic over K and. b separable algebraic over K. Then there exists Theorem 22.1.22 (Artin) Let K be an infinite field. Let F/K be a finite
an el.em.ent c G K(a,b) such that K(a,b) = K(c), i.e., K(a,b)/K is a simple field extension. Then F/K is a simple extension if and only if there are only
extension. a finite number of intermediate fields of F/K.

Proof. Let f(x) and g(x) be the minimal polynomials of a and b over Proof. Suppose F/K is a simple extension. Let F = K(a) for some a G F.
K with degrees n and m and roots a = 0.1,02, .an, and b = bi,b2, • ••, Let L be an intermediate field of F/K and f(x) be the minimal polynomial of
b-m, respectively, in some extension field of K. Since b is separable, all bTs are a over L. Let L' be the field generated by K and the coefficients of f(x). Then
distinct. Also, since K is infinite, there exists sEK such that a + sb yL ai + sbj, L' CL and f(x) is also the minimal polynomial of a over Lr. Hence,
i.e.,
[F-.L]=degf(x) = [F:L'].

Thus, [L : L'] — 1 and so L = L'. Let g(x) be the minimal polynomial of a

over K. Then f(x) divides g(x). Now g(x) has only a finite number of distinct
monic factors. Hence, the number of intermediate fields is finite.
Conversely, suppose there are only a finite number of intermediate fields of
h(b) = f(c - sb) = f(a) = 0. F/K. Let a,b G F. We first show that K(a,b)/K is a simple extension. Let
c G K and Fc = K(a + cb). Then for all c G K, Fc is an intermediate field of
Thus, g(x) and h,(x) have the common root b of multiplicity 1 in the field K(a,b)/K. Since the number of intermediate fields is finite and K is infinite,
A(a, 6). Now there exists c,d G K, c d such that Fc = Fd- Then
h(bfi) = f(c ~ /0
b = (c ~ d)_1(a + cb — a — db) G Fc.
for all 1 < j < m. Thus, g(x) and h(x) have only root b in common. Let
d(x) G A(c) [x] be the greatest common divisor of g(x) and h(x). Then b is a root Hence, a = a 4- cb — cb G Fc. Thus, K(a,b) = Fc = K(a + cb), i.e., K(a,b)/K
of d(x). Every root of d(x) is also a root of g(x) and h(x). Since g(x) and h(x) is a simple extension. Now for all a G F, K(a) is an intermediate field of F/K.
have no roots other than b in common in any field and b is of multiplicity 1, d(x) Since [F : K] is finite, [K’(a) : K] is finite. Let
is of degree 1. Hence, d(x) = x — b. But then b e K(c). Thus, a = c— sb G K(c).
Therefore, K(a, b) C K(c) C K(a,b) and so K{c\ — K(a,b). ■
22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 481 22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 482

Then A is a finite subset of Z. Let a € F be such that the maximum of Theorem 22.1.25 Let F/K be a field extension of characteristic p > 0 and c
A — [K(a) : K]. Suppose F / K(a). Let b G F be such that b <■£ K(a). Then be an element of F. Then c is purely inseparable over K if and only if cp G K
K(a) C K(a,b). There exists c G F such that K(a,b) = K(c). Therefore, for some nonnegative integer m.
K(a) C K(c). Hence, [K(c) : K] > [Jf (a) : K], a contradiction to the maximal­
ly of [7<(a) : K]. Consequently, F = K(a), i.e., F/K is a simple extension. ■
Proof. Let c be purely inseparable over K. Then the degree of separability
Let F/K be a field extension. In the next chapter, we show that every no of the minimal polynomial p(z) of c equals 1. Thus, p(z) = xp 4- k in JC[z],
finite extension of a finite field is a simple extension (Corollary 23.1.8, page where e is the exponent of inseparability of p(x) over K. Therefore, cp + k = 0
494). Hence, from this and Theorem 22.1.22, it follows that F/K is a simple or cp£ = — k e K. Hence, we can take m, = e. Conversely, suppose cp G K. Let
extension if and only if there are only a finite number of intermediate fields of e be the smallest nonnegative integer such that cp G K. Then c is a root of
the polynomial xpe — k over JC, where k = cp . If xp — k is not irreducible over
F/K.
We now focus our attention on the study of separable algebraic and K, then e > 0 and k = k'p for some k' G K by Theorem 22.1.23. In this case,
xpG — k = {xpe 1 — V)p. Thus, (cpe 1 — k')p = 0 and since a field has no nonzero
purely inseparable extensions.1
nilpotent elements, cp — k' = 0 or cp = k' E K. However, this contradicts
the minimality of e. Thus, xp — k is irreducible over K. Clearly the degree of
Theorem 22.1.23 Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0 and f(x) = xp& — k
separability of xp — k is 1. Therefore, c is purely inseparable over K. ■
be a polynomial over K, where e is a. positive integer. Then /(z) is irreducible
over K if and only if k £ Kp.
Corollary 22.1.26 Let F/K be a, field extension of characteristic p > 0 and

Proof. Suppose f(x) is irreducible over K. If k = k'p G Kp for some k' G K, cEF.
then f(x) = (xpe — fc')p, contrary to the fact that f(x) is irreducible over (i) If c is algebraic over K, then c is purely inseparable over K if and, only
if the minimal polynomial of c over K is xpe — cpS, where e is the smallest
K. Hence, k Kp. Conversely, suppose k Kp. Let p(x) be a nonconstant
monic irreducible factor of f(x) in and c be a root of p(x). Then c is a nonnegative integer such that cp G K.
root of f(x) and so cpe = k and f(x) = (x — c)pC over K(c). Since K(c)[x] is a (ii) If c is purely inseparable over K, then [K(c) : K] = pe for some non­
unique factorization domain, it follows that p(x) is some power of (t — c), say, negative integer e.
p(x) = (x — c)m. Thus, mn = pe for some n so that m — pr and n = ps for (Hi) If c is purely inseparable and separable algebraic over K, then c G K.
nonnegative integers r and s. Therefore, p(x) = xp —cp in K[z]. If s > 0, then
k = cpe = (cpT )pS G Kp$ C Kp, which is contrary to the assumption k Kp.
Thus, s = 0 and so r = e. Hence, p(x) = /(z), i.e., f(x) is irreducible. ■ Proof. The proof of (i) follows from Theorem 22.1.25. Statement (ii) is an
immediate consequence of statement (i). For the proof of statement (iii), we'
see that since c is purely inseparable over K the minimal polynomial of c over
Definition 22.1.24 Let F/K be a field extension of characteristic p > 0. Let
K has the form xp* — k. Since c is separable algebraic over 7C, the exponent of
c E F be a root of the irreducible polynomial p(z) in 2f[z]. If the degree of
inseparability of xp — k is 0, i.e., e = 0. Thus, x — k is the minimal polynomial
separability no of p(x) equals 1, then c is said to be purely inseparable over
of c over K, whence c = k G K. ■
K. If every element of F is purely inseparable over K, then F/K is called a
purely inseparable extension.
Corollary 22.1.27 Let F/K be a field, extension of characteristic p > 0.
In Theorem 22.1.15, let c be a root of p(x). Then cp& is a root of s(p). (i) If F = K(M) for some subset M of F such that every element of M is
We have K(c) D K(cp ) D K and c is a root of the polynomial xp — cp purely inseparable over Ky then F/K is a. purely inseparable extension.
over K(cpe). It follows that xp& — cpC is irreducible over /C(cpC), /C(c)//f(cpe) (ii) Let L be an intermediate field of F/K. Then F/K is purely inseparable
is purely inseparable, and K(cp )/K is separable. if and only if F/L and L/K are purely inseparable.
(iii) The set of all elements of F which are purely inseparable over K is an
lrThe remainder of this section may be skipped without any discontinuity. The only place
this material is needed is in Example 24.2.8.
intermediate field of F/K.
22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 483 22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 484

Proof. (i) Let c be an element of F. Then there exists a finite subset Example 22.1.30 Let J be any field of characteristic p > 0. Let K = J(tfi
{mi, m2, • • ■ > ms} of M such that where t is transcendental over J. Let F = K(tp 1, tp 2, tp 3, . . Then F/K
is purely inseparable by Corollary 22.1.27. Since [7C(tp 1 ,tp 2 ,tp 3,...,tp n) :
c= Y ;,
■■■m1 K(tp X, tp 2, tp 3,... ,tp n+1)] = p for all positive integers n, [F : K] = 00.
h,•••»«« There does not exist a. positive integer e such that Fp C K.
where here we are using the fact that F = K[M] since F/K is necessarily an
algebraic extension. Let e = max{ei,..., es}, where ei is a nonnegative integer Example 22.1.31 Let J be any field of characteristic p > 0. Let K = J(a?i,
such that m? 1 G K, i = 1,..., s. Then Z2, £3, • • •), where Xi, X2, X3,... are algebraically independent over J. Let Fq =
—1 —2 —3
K(x? , x2 , T3 ,...). Then Fq/K is purely inseparable and. [Fq : K] = 00.
—2 —2 —2
Let, Fi = K(x? , x2 , xp Then F\/K is purely inseparable, [Fi : K] =
00, and Ff C K.
Hence, c is purely inseparable over K.
(ii) Suppose that F/K is purely inseparable. Let c G F. Then there exists
a nonnegative integer e such that cp G K and so cp G L. Thus, F/L is purely We now turn our attention to separable extensions.
inseparable. L/K is purely inseparable since every element of L is an element
of F. Conversely, suppose F/L and L/K are purely inseparable. Let c G F. Theorem 22.1.32 Let F/K be a. field extension of characteristic p > 0. If
Then there exists a nonnegative integer m such that cpm G L. Since L/K is F/K is separable algebraic, then F = K(FP). If [F : K] <00 a,nd. F = K(FP),
purely inseparable, there exists a nonnegative integer n such that (cpm)pn G K. then F/K is separable algebraic.
Therefore, cpm+n G K so that c is purely inseparable over K.
(iii) Let J denote the set of all elements of F which are purely inseparable Proof. Suppose F/K is separable algebraic. Now every element of F is
over K. Then K C J and so J 7^ 0. Let c, d G J. Then cpe G K and dpf G K purely inseparable over Fp and thus purely inseparable over KfiFp'). Every
for some nonnegative integers e and f. Let n = max{e,/}. Then (c — d)p = element c of F is separable algebraic over K and thus separable algebraic
cPn _ dpn G K. Hence, c - d G J. If d 0, then (ccT1)^ = cpn(dpn)-x G K. over K(Fpfi Thus, every element c of F is in K(FP) by Corollary 22.1.26(iii).
Thus, cd-1 G J. Hence, J is an intermediate field of F/K. ■ Hence, F C K(Fpfi so that F = KfiFp). Conversely, suppose [F : K] < 00 and
F — K{FP). Let a be any element of F. Since [F : K] < 00, a is algebraic over
Theorem 22.1.25 and Corollary 22.1.27(i) make it quite easy to construct K. If a is not separable over K, then the minimal polynomial of a over K has
examples of purely inseparable field extensions. the form
(xp)n + • • • + k]Xp + ko.
Example 22.1.28 Let J be any field of characteristic p > 0; e.g., J = 7ip.
Let F = J(x, y, z), where x, y, z are algebraically independent over J. Set Therefore, 0 = anp+ - • • +kiap + &o • 1 with not all the kt = 0. Hence,
K = J(xp, yp , zp ). Then F/K is purely inseparable since x,y,z are purely l,ap,... ,anp are linearly dependent over K. By Theorem 21.1.14, 1, a,a2,
inseparable over K. It can be shown that [F : K] = pQ since x, y, z a,re alge- ..., an, ..., anp_1 are linearly independent over K, whence 1, a, a2, ..., an are
braically independent over J. Since xp. yp , zp € K, we ho.ve Fp C K. linearly independent over K.
For any field F of prime characteristic p, F/Fp& is a purely inseparable field We now show that this is impossible by showing that whenever n elements
bi,... ,bn of F are linearly independent over K, then the elements b^,...,
extension for any nonnegative integer e.
are linearly independent over K. We can assume that bi,..., bn is a basis of
The following example is essentially the same as that in Example 22.1.28.
F/K since any linearly independent set over K can be extended to a basis of
Example 22.1.29 Let J be any field of characteristic p > 0. Let K = J(x, y, F/K, in particular, the linearly independent set {l,a,... ,un}. By Exercise 7
z), where x, y, z are algebraically independent over J. Let F = J(a, 5, c), where (page 490), the mapping a : F Fp defined by o(c) = cp for c G F is an
2 isomorphism, which maps K onto Kp. Thus, since bi,... ,bn is a basis of F/K,
a is a root of the polynomial tp — x over K, b is a root of the polynomial tp —y
over K{a), and c is a. root of the polynomial tp3 — z over K(a,b). Then F/K is a basis of Fp/Kp. Hence, spans Fp over Kp. Conse­
is purely inseparable, [F : K] = p6, and Fp C K. One often writes a = xp , quently, ..., spans K(FP) over K; i.e., F over K. Since F has dimension
b = yp 2, and c = zp 3. n over K and the n elements ... ,bP span F over K, the elements bP
lna.tl1.C^a±LC^L P/Iy.±LCL±
22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 485 22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 486

must be a basis for F over K. ■ algebraic over K(co,ci, ..., cn). (p(x) is also the minimal polynomial of a
over Jf(co, ci,..., cn).) Since cq, Ci, ..., cn € L and L/K is separable algebraic,
The field extension F/K of Example 22.1.30 shows that the finiteness con­ K(cq, ci, ..., Cn/l/K is separable algebraic by Corollary 22.1.33(h). Thus, a and
dition [F : K] < co cannot be dropped in the above theorem. We have so F is separable algebraic over K.
F = K(FP), F/K is not separable algebraic, in fact, F/K is purely insep­ (iii) Let S denote the set of elements of F which are separable algebraic
arable. over K. Then S D K. Let a,b € S. Then by Corollary 22.1.33(h), K(a, b)/K is
separable algebraic. Since a — b G K(a, 6) and (for b 0 0) ab~x G K(a, 6), a — 6,
Corollary 22.1.33 Let, F/K be afield extension of characteristic p > 0. and ab~1 (b 0) are separable algebraic over K and thus are members of S.
(i) Let a be an element of F. Then K(a) = K(ap) if and only if K(a)/K is Hence, 5 is a field. ■
separable algebraic.
(ii) Let ai,a2t... ,an be elements of F. Then K(a-^ ...,an)/K is separable Definition 22.1.35 Let F/K be an algebraic field, extension of characteristic
algebraic if and only if ai is separable algebraic over K and is separable p > 0. Then the intermediate field of F/K consisting of all elements of F which
algebraic over K(a\,..., fli-i), i = 2,3,... ,n. are separable algebraic over K is called the separable closure of K in F or
the maximal separable intermediate field, of F/K. We denote this field by
Proof. (i) If K(a) = K(apfi then a cannot be transcendental over K and Ks.
so a must be algebraic over K. By Theorem 22.1.32, K(a) = JC(lC(a)p) if and
only if K(a)/K is separable algebraic. We thus have the desired result since Theorem 22.1.36 Let F/K be an algebraic field, extension of characteristic
K(K(a)p) = K(ap). p > 0. Then F/Ks is purely inseparable, where Ks is the separable closure of
(ii) Suppose JC(ai,..., an)/K is separable algebraic. Then ai,..., an are F/K.
separable algebraic over K. By the discussion following Definition 22.1.2, ai
is clearly separable algebraic over K(a\, ... , a^-i), i = 2,3,... , n. Conversely, Proof. If F = Ks the theorem is immediate. Suppose F D Ks. Let a G
suppose ai is separable algebraic over K and ai is separable algebraic over F, a Ks. Let
K(ai,... .ai-J.i = 2,3, Then7<(ai) = K(a%),K(ai,. .. ,ai_i)(ai) = p(x) = ko-f- kixp& --- F (xpC)n°
K(ai, i = 2,3,..., n. Thus, K(alt ..., an) = K(aplt ..., ap) = be the minimal polynomial of F/Ks, where e is the exponent of inseparabil­
K([K(ai, ..., a^_i)]p). The conclusion now holds from Theorem 22.1.32. ■ ity and no is the reduced degree of p(x) over Ks. Now by Theorem 22.1.15,
A?o+ki y+• • -+?/710 is the minimal polynomial of ap over Ks and this polynomial
Corollary 22.1.34 Let F/K be a field extension of characteristic p > 0. is separable over Ks. Hence, ap is separable over Ks. Thus, Ks(ape)/Ks is sep­
(i) If F = K(M) for some subset M of F such that every element of M is arable algebraic and so K$(ape)/K is separable algebraic. By the definition of
separable algebraic over K, then F/K is separable algebraic.
Ks, we have ap G Ks. Therefore, a is purely inseparable over Ks- ■
(ii) Let L be an interm,ediate field of F/K. Then F/K is separable algebraic
if and only if F/L and L/K are separable algebraic.
We can think of field theory as being separated into two parts, namely,
(Hi) The set of all elements of F which a,re separable algebraic over K is that in which the fields are of characteristic 0 and that in which the fields are
an intermediate field of F/K. of prime characteristic p. It can be shown that for any field extension F/K,
there exists a subset X of F which is algebraically independent over K and
Proof. (i) Let a G F. There exists a finite subset {mi,... ,ms} of M such which also has the property that F/K(X) is algebraic. The above theorem
that a G K(mi,..., mf). Since each mi is separable algebraic over K, we have shows that the study of algebraic field extensions of characteristic p > 0 can be
by Corollary 22.1.33(ii) that K(mi,... ,ms)/K is separable algebraic. Hence, separated into two parts, the separable part and the purely inseparable part.
a and thus F/K is separable algebraic. Separable algebraic field extensions of characteristic p > 0 often act entirely
(ii) Suppose F/K is separable algebraic. Then F/L is separable algebraic similar to field extensions of characteristic 0. Purely inseparable field extensions
by the discussion following Definition 22.1.2. L/K is separable algebraic since have their own distinctive behavior.
every element of L is an element of F. Suppose F/L and L/K are separable
algebraic. Let a G F. Let cq,ci, ... ,Cn € L be the coefficients of the minimal Definition 22.1.37 Let F/K be a.n algebraic field extension, of characteristic
polynomial p(x) of a over L. Since a is separable algebraic over L, a is separable p > 0. Then the deqree \KS : K] is called the deqree of separability of
22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 487 22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 488

F/K and is denoted by [F : K]s. The degree [F : Ks\ is called the degree of (i) z2 — 6z 4- 9 over Q;
inseparability of F/K and is denoted by [F : K]t. (ii) x4 + x2 4- [1] over Z2.

Theorem 22.1.38 Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0 and p(x) an irre­ Solution: (i) x2 — 6z 4- 9 = (z — 3)2 over Q. Now x — 3 is irreducible over
ducible polynomial in /C[x]. Let K(a) be an extension of K obtained by adjoin­ Q. Since x — 3 is separable over Q, x2 — 6z 4- 9 is separable over Q.
ing a root a ofp(x) to K. Then
(ii) z4 -I- x2 4- [1] = (z2 4- x + [l])2 over Z2. Now x2 + x + [1] has no roots in
Z2. Hence, z24-z 4- [1] is irreducible over Z2. Now Dx(x2+x + [1]) = [2]z4-[l] =
[K(a] : K]s = n0,
[1] [0]. Thus, x2 + x 4- [1] and so z4 4- x2 4- [1] is separable over Z2-
[K(a) : K], = pe,
0 Exercise 2 Prove that the following polynomials are irreducible over Z^ftf,
where no is the reduced degree of p(x) over K and pe is the degree of insepara­ where t is transcendental over Z3. Find the exponent of inseparability and
bility of p(x) over K. the degree of separability of the polynomials over Z^ft).
(i) p(x) = z36 + tz18 4-t.
Proof. Let b E K(a). Then b = where n is the degree of p{x)
over K and each ki E K. Therefore, (ii) q(x) = z24 4- iz18 4-t.

n—1
(iii) r(z) = z20 4- tz18 4- t.
(apy e K(ape). (iv) s(x) = x9 + t.
i=0
Thus, b is purely inseparable over K(ape). Hence, K(a)/K(ape) is purely insepa­ Solution: Since t\t, £|0, t / 1, t2 ft, the polynomials p(xfi r(a0, s(x)
rable. By the definition of the degree of inseparability of p(z) over F, K(ap& )/K are irreducible over
is separable algebraic. Now Ks D K(ape). Let b E Ks. We have just seen (i) p(x) = z4'32 4- tx2'32 4- 1 and so the exponent of inseparability e = 2 and
that b is purely inseparable over K(ap ). But b is also separable algebraic over the degree of separability no = 4.
F(apC). Therefore, b E K(apS) so that Ks = K(ape). By Theorem 22.1.15, (ii) q(z) = x8'3 4- tz6'3 4- t, and so the exponent of inseparability e = 1 and
the minimal polynomial of ap over K is of degree hq and so [F(a) : K]s = the degree of separability no = 8.
[K(ape] : AT] = n0. Thus, nope = [F(a) : K] = [K(a) : K(ape)][K(ape) : K] = (iii) Since 3 f 20, e = 0 and no = 20.
[F(a) : K(apS)]no- Consequently, pe = [F(a) : K(ape)] = [F(a) : K]i. ■ (iv) Here e = 2 and no = 1.

Example 22.1.39 Let K denote the field Zp(u,v), where u and v are alge­ <0> Exercise 3 Let /(z) and g(x) be polynomials over the field K.
braically independent over Zp. Let a be a root of the polynomial x2p 4- vxp -I- u (i) Does /(c) = g{c) for all c E K imply that /(z) = ^(z)?
over K. By use of Worked-Out Exercise 6 (page 456,), one can deduce that
x2p + vxp 4- u is irreducible over K. Let F be the field K(a). We ask the reader (ii) Does /(c) = 0 for all c E K imply that /(z) = 0?
to verify the following properties of the field extension F/K. Ks = K(ap},
Solution: (i) Let /(z) = [3]z5 —[4]z2 E Z^[x] and g(x) = z24-[3]z E Zs[x].
[F : K]i = p, a,nd [F : K]s = 2. Also, the extension F/K has no elements
Now /([0]) = [0] = p([0]), /([l]) = [4] = g([l]), /([2]) = [0] = S([2]), /([3]) =
which are purely inseparable over K ( except those elements which are already
[3] = P([3]), f([4]) = [3] = p([4]). Hence, /(c) = p(c) for all c e Z5. However,
in K). Thus, if J is the intermediate field, of F/K consisting of all the elements
of F purely inseparable over K, then J = K. Hence, F/ J is not separable al­
(ii) Let /(z) = a:2 + a: e Z2[a:]. Then /(c) = 0 for all c G Z2, but /(a:) 7^ 0.
gebraic.
Exercise 4 Let K — P{x,y,z) and F = K(zp 2, zp 2tp 1 + yp '), where
22.1.1 Worked-Out Exercises
P is a perfect field of characteristic p > 0 and x,y,z are algebraically
<0> Exercise 1 Determine if the following polynomials are separable or insep­ independent indeterminates over P. Prove that Kp Cl F = K(zp *),
arable over the given fields. where Fp_1 = {F_1 | k E K}.
PkyTj.c.1
“
22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 489 22.1. MULTIPLICITY OF ROOTS 490

Solution: Clearly F D Kp 1 A F □ K(zp x). Now [F : K] = p3. Suppose 7. Let F be a field of characteristic p > 0. Prove that for any nonnegative
that Kp~' HF D K(zp~ly). Then F = (Kp~' A F)(zp~2) since zp~2 (£ Kp~' A F integer e, FpC is a subfield of F Prove also that the mapping a : F —+ Fp&
and [Kp 1 A F : K] must be p2. Thus, [F : Kp 1 A F] = p. Since [Kp X(F) : defined by a (a) = ap is an isomorphism.
Fp X] = p, any basis of F/(KP 1 A F) remains a basis of Kp \F)/KP \ Now
Z = {1, zp~\ .... is a basis of F/(FP“X A F). Also, 8. Prove that a root of the polynomials in Examples 22.1.16 and 22.1.39
is neither purely inseparable nor separable algebraic over F(t) and K,
p-i
zP-^p-1 +yp-1 = k^-2y, respectively.

2=0 9. Let K(a)/K be a field extension of characteristic p > 0. Prove that

where ki E Kp 1 AF, t = 0,1, ..., p — 1. Since Z remains linearly independent (F(a))p = Kp(ap).
over Kp \ yp 1 = ko e Kp 1 A F and xp 1 = ki E Kp 1 A F. Therefore,
10. Let F/K be a finite field extension of characteristic p > 0. If [F : K] is
xp X,pp 1 E F. Thus, [F : K] = p4, a contradiction. Hence, Kp 1 AF =
not divisible by p, prove that F/K is separable.
F(zp"x).
11. Let F/K be an algebraic field extension and S be an intermediate field of
22.1.2 Exercises F/K such that F/S is purely inseparable and S/K is separable algebraic.
Prove that S = Ks.
1. Let f(x) E F[x], a polynomial ring over a field K and c E F, where F is
an extension field of K. Prove that (x — c)2\f(x) if and only (x — c)|/(t) 12. Let P be a perfect field of characteristic p > 0. Let P(a)/P be an algebraic
and (x — c)\f'(x). field extension. Prove that P(a)/P is separable and that P(a) is perfect.

2. Let f(x) E K[x], a polynomial ring over a field K. Use Exercise 1 to 13. Let K be any field of characteristic p > 0. Prove that Zp is the smallest
prove that f(x) has no repeated roots in any extension field of K if and subfield of K which is perfect and Ag0Fpl is the largest subfield of K
only if f(x) and /'(x) are relatively prime. which is perfect.
3. Let f(x) = xn — x E F[x], a polynomial ring over a field K. Suppose 14. Verify the properties of the field extension F/K of Example 22.1.39.
that n >2 and that either K has characteristic 0 or a prime p such that
p does not divide n — 1. Prove that f(x) has no repeated roots in any 15. Answer the following statements, true or false. If the statement is true,
extension field F of K. prove it. If it is false, give a counterexample.

4. Let f(x) = xp—k E K[x], a polynomial ring over a field K of characteristic (i) Let F be a field of characteristic p > 0. Since F ~ Fp and Fp C F, it
p > 0. Prove that either /(x) is irreducible over K or that f{x) is a power follows that Fp = F
of a linear polynomial in F[x]. (ii) Let F/K be a field extension of characteristic p > 0. Let c E F\K.
Then it is impossible for c to be both separable and purely inseparable
5. Determine if the following polynomials are separable or inseparable over
over K.
the given field.
(iii) Let F/K be a field extension of characteristic p > 0. Let c E F. Then
(i) x2 — 4x + 4 over Q.
it is impossible for c to be both separable and inseparable over K.
(ii) x^ + tx +1 over Z5 (t), where t is transcendental over Z5.

6. Prove that the following polynomials are irreducible over Zsfu), where
u is transcendental over Z5. Find the exponent of inseparability and the
degree of separability of the polynomials over Z5(u).
(i) p(x) = x250 + ux125 + u.
(ii) g(F) = x128 + ux125 + u.
(iii) s(z) = x125 + u.
~Ph-y-Ai.cS.
Chapter 23 23.1. FINITE FIELDS 493

Proof. First note that (F\{0}, •) is a commutative group of order pn — 1.

Thus, for all a 6 F\{0}, apn_1 = 1, whence apn = a. Clearly (Fn = 0. Since
Finite Fields F contains all the roots of xp — x, F contains a splitting field S of xpn — x
over Zp. However, F is exactly the set of all the roots of xpn —x and so F = S. ■

In the following result, we once again use a positive integer and the concept
The theory of finite fields has come to the fore in the last 60 years due to of an isomorphism to completely characterize an algebraic structure.
newfound applications. The applications of finite fields are in coding theory,
combinatorics, switching circuits, statistics via finite geometries, and certain Corollary 23.1.3 Any two finite fields of pn elements are isomorphic, where
areas of computer science. p is a prime and. n is a positive integer.

Proof. If F and F' are finite fields with pn elements, then they are splitting
23.1 Finite Fields fields of the polynomial xp — x over Zp. Hence, F ~ F'. ■

A finite field (or Galois field) is a field with a finite number of elements. The next theorem can be used to show that there exists an irreducible
If F is a finite field, then F has prime characteristic p and contains a subfield polynomial of arbitrary degree n over Zp. (See Exercise 8, page 497.) Even
isomorphic to Zp. Since F has only a finite number of elements, [F : Zp] < oo. though its proof is not constructive in nature, it is informative for certain
We denote a finite field of n elements by GF(n). We will show in the next applications. Exercises 5 and 6 can be used to actually count the irreducible
result that n must be a power of p. The result is due to E.H. Moore (1862- polynomials of a given degree. There is an algorithm which can be used to
1932). The United States is indebted to Moore for its beginnings in abstract test the irreducibility of a polynomial over a finite field—namely, Berlekamp’s
algebra and for its initial international recognition in research. algorithm. This algorithm is discussed in Isaacs.
Theorem 23.1.4 For any prime p, there exists a field extension F/Zp of ar­
Theorem 23.1.1 If F is a finite field of characteristic p and n = [F : Zp],
bitrary finite degree n.
then F contains pn elements.
Proof. Let S be the splitting field of the polynomial f(x) = xpn — x over
Proof. Since [F : Zp] = n, F/Zp has a basis of n elements, say, 6i, 62,..., 6n. Zp. Let a 6 S be a root of f(x) of multiplicity m. Then
Every element a of F is a linear combination of 61, 62, • • •, bn, i.e., a = a±bi +
a262H-- [-anbn, where ai G Zp, i = 1,2, ..., n. Now Zp has p elements. Hence, /(x) = (x-a)mg(x),
F has at most pn elements. Since {dj, &2> • • •, bn} is linearly independent over where a is not a root of g(x). Now
Zp, + 02^2 +-- F Qnbn is distinct for every choice of ai, (12, • • •, Thus,
-1 = f(x) = (z - + (x - a)p'(i)].
F has exactly pn elements. ■
This implies that (x — a)m_1 divides —1, whence m — 1 = 0. Thus, every root
Theorem 23.1.2 Every element of a, finite field F of characteristic p and of of f(x) in S has multiplicity 1. Hence, f(x) has pn distinct roots in S. Let F
pn elements is a root of the polynomial xpn — x € Zp[x]. Moreover, F is a. denote the subset of S, which consists of all roots of f(x). Let a, b € F. Then
splitting field of xp — x over Zp. (a - b)pn =apn -bPn =a-b. Therefore, a - b € F. For b ± 0,
(a6_1)pn = apn(^n)-1 = ab~x e F.

Thus, F is a subfield of S. Since F contains all the roots of f(x) and S is

generated by the roots of /(x) over Zp, F = S. By Exercise 6 (page 497),
[F:Zp]=n.B

Theorem 23.1.5 Let F be a field and G be a finite subgroup of the multiplica­

tive group F* = F\{0}. Then G is cyclic.
Pk_ySlc-A.
23.1. FINITE FIELDS 494 23.1. FINITE FIELDS 495

Proof. Since G is a finite Abelian group, G is a direct product of cyclic and A2 and A 4- A2 are the roots of z2 4- Ax 4- [1] 4- A2. Since A2, A 4- A2 € Z2 (A),
subgroups Ci, 6^2, C^, where |C;| = n*, n\ > 1, and ’njnj+i, 1 < i < k, Z2 (A) is a splitting field of x3 + x + [1] over Z2 . Let St = Z2(A). Then {[1], A, A2}
by Theorem 9.1.7. From this it follows that gnk = 1 for all g eG. Thus, every is a basis for S1/Z2 and [Si : Z2] = 3. Let a denote [1] 4- A 4- A2. The addition
element of G is a root of xnk - 1 € F[z]. Since xnk — 1 has at most nk distinct table for Z2(A) is given below.
roots in F, |C| < n^. Now Ck is a subgroup of G and |GcI = nk- Hence, G = Ck 4- [0] A A2 [1]+A [1]+A2 A+A2 a
and so G is cyclic. ■ [0] [0] A A2 [1]+A [1]+A2 A+A2 a
[1] [1] ) [ij+A [l]+>2 A A2 a A+A2
A A [1 +A [0] A+A2 [11 a A2 ll]+A2
The following corollary is an immediate consequence of Theorem 23.1.5. A2 A2 [1]+A2 A+A2 [0] a [1] A [1]+A
[1]+A [1]+A A [1] a [0] A+A2 [1]+A2 A2
Corollary 23.1.6 The multiplicative group of a finite field is cyclic. ■ [1]+A2 [1]+A2 2 a [1] A+A2 [0] [1]+A A
A+A2 A+A2 * A2 A [1]+A2 [1]+A [0] [1]
Theorem 23.1.7 Let F be a finite field and F(a, b)/F a field extension with a a A+A2 [1]+A2 [1]+A A2 A [1] [0]
a, b algebraic over F. Then there exists c 6 F(a, b) such that F(a^ 6) = F(c), For the multiplication table, we make a few entries, such as ([1] 4*A)([1] 4-A) =
i.e., F(afb) is a simple extension. [1]+A2 and ([1]+A4-A2)([1] +A2) = [1]4-A+A3+A4. We now reduce [1]+A+A3+A4
to the form a + bA + cA2, where a, b, c G Z2. We divide x^ 4- z3 4- x 4- [1] by
Proof. Since F(a, b)/F is algebraic, [F(a,6) : F] < oo. Thus, F(a, 6) is z3 4- x + [1] to obtain z4 + z3 + z + [1] = (x 4- [l])(z3 4- x 4- [1]) 4- z2 4- x. Thus,
a finite field since F is a finite field. Since F(a, 6)\{0} is a cyclic group with A4 + A3 + A + [1] = (A 4- [1])(A3 + A 4- [1]) + A2 + A = [0] + A2 + A. Hence,
some generator, say, c by Theorem 23.1.5, it follows that F(a, 5) = F(c). ■ ([1] + A + A2)([l] + A2) = A + A2.

Corollary 23.1.8 Every finite extension of a finite field is simple. ■ 0 Exercise 2 Prove that z3 + z2 4- [1] is irreducible in Z2[z]. Write out the
addition and multiplication tables for the field
23.1.1 Worked-Out Exercises
Z2[z]/^x3 + a:2 + [1]^ .
0 Exercise 1 Prove that z3 + x + [1] is irreducible in Z2[z]. Write out the
addition and multiplication tables for the field Find a splitting field S2 for z3 4- z 4- [1] over Z2. Find a basis for S2/Z2
and [S2 : Z2]. Compare your results with those in Worked-Out Exercise
Z2[z]/ (x3 + x + [1]^ .
1.
Find a splitting field St for z3 + x + [1] over Z2. Find a basis for S1/Z2 Solution: Since [0]3 4- [0]2 4- [1] / [0] and [l]3 + [l]2 + [1] [0] in Z2, Z2
and [Si : Z2] • contains no roots of z3 4- z2 4- [1] over Z2. Hence, z3 4- x2 4- [1] is irreducible
over Z2. By Theorem 21.1.11,
Solution: x3 4- x + [1] is irreducible over Z2 if and only if Z2 contains no
root of x3 + x + [1]. Since [0]3 + [0] + [1] [0] and [l]3 + [1] 4- [1] [0] in Z2, Z2M/ + X2 + [1]^ = Z2(/z),
Z2 contains no roots of z3 + x + [1] over Z2. Hence, z3 + x + [1] is irreducible
over Z2. By Theorem 21.1.11, where p denotes the coset z + (z3 4- z2 4- [1]) . By Theorem 21.1.14,

Z2[z]/^3 + z+[l]) = Z2(A), z2(m) — {[0], [1] + [1] + /A/2 + /A [1] + ^ + M2}-

where A denotes the coset x 4- (z3 + x + [1]). By Theorem 21.1.14, Now z3 4- z2 4- [1] = (x 4- /i)(z2 4- ([1] 4- p)x + /z 4- p2) and p2 and [1] + p 4- p2
are the roots of z2 + ([1] 4- p)x + p + p2. Since p2, [1] + p 4- p2 6 Z2(^)>
Z2(A) = {[0], [1], A, A2, [1] + A, [1] + A2, A + A2, [1] 4- A 4- A2}. Z2(/z) is a splitting field of z3 + z2 + [1] over Z2. Let S2 = l^p)- Then
{[l],/z,p2} is a basis for S2/Z2 and [S2 : Z2] = 3. The addition table for
Now Z2(^) is determined in a manner similar to that in Exercise 1. In fact, one may
obtain the addition table by substituting ll for A in the addition table of Zq.(A) .
23.1. FINITE FIELDS 496 23.1. FINITE FIELDS 497

We now consider multiplication. We note that ([1] + /z) ([1] + p) = [l] 4- ^tz2. 0 Exercise 8 Show that there exists an isomorphism g of Z2(A) onto Z2([1] +
However, ([1] + p 4- /z2)([1] 4- /z2) = [1] + p + p3 +/z4 = [1]. Hence, we note the /z) such that g(X) = [1] 4- /z, where A and are as defined in Worked-Out
first algebraic difference between Z2(A) and Z2(//). Exercises 1 and 2, respectively.

0 Exercise 3 Show that there exists an isomorphism f of Z2(A) onto Z2(/z) Solution: The result here follows immediately by Corollary 21.2.9.
considered as vector spaces over Z2 such that f is the identity on Z2
and /(A) = /z, /(A2) = /z2, where A and p. are as defined in Worked-Out 0 Exercise 9 Show that there does not exist an isomorphism h of Z2(A) onto
Z2(/i) such that h(A) = /z, where A and /z are as defined in Worked-Out
Exercises 1 and 2, respectively.
Exercises 1 and 2, respectively.
Solution: {[1], A, A2} is a basis for Z2(A) over Z2 and {[1], /z,/z2} is a basis
Solution: Suppose there exists an isomorphism h of Z2(A) onto Z2(/z)
for Z2(a0 over ^2- Hence, there exists a unique linear transformation f of
such that h(X) = /z. Then [0] = A([0]) = h(A3 4- A 4- [1]) = /z3 + /z 4- [1]. Also,
Z2(A) onto Z2(/z) such that /([l]) = [1], /(A) = /z, and /(A2) = /z2. This linear
[0] = jtz3 4- p2 4- [1]. Hence, p3 + pF [1] = /z3 4-/z2 4- [1]. Thus, /z2 = /z. Therefore,
transformation is given by
/z = [1], a contradiction.
/(a[l] + bX + cA2) = a[l] + bp + cp2,
23.1.2 Exercises
where a, 6,c G Z2. Since {[l],/z,/z2} is linearly independent, f is one-one.
1. Let F be a finite field. A generator for F* = F\{0} is called a primitive
<0> Exercise 4 Show that Z2(A) and Z2(^z) are isomorphic as fields, where A element for F. Find a primitive element for the following fields.
and /z are as defined in Worked-Out Exercises 1 and 2, respectively. (i) Z7.
(ii) Z21.
Solution: Since |Z2(A)| = 23 = |Z2(/z)|, Z2(A) and Z2(/z) are splitting
fields of x8 — x over Z2 and thus are isomorphic. (iii) F, where F D Z2 and [F : Z2] = 8.

2. Construct a field with 9 elements.

<) Exercise 5 Factor the polynomial x8 — x over Z2.
3. Construct a field with 27 elements.
Solution: x8~x = z(x4-[l])(a?64-z5 +z44-z3+x2+x+ [1]). Now x2+z + [1]
is the only irreducible quadratic polynomial over Z2. But x2 -I- x + [1] does not 4. Suppose that F is a finite field of characteristic p. If c is a primitive
divide xQ 4- x5 4- x4 + x3 + x2 + x + [1]. We have that x3 + x + [1] and x3 + x2 4- [1] element of F, prove that cp is a primitive element of F.
are irreducible polynomials over Z2 and x8 + z5 + z4 + x3 + x2 4- x + [1] =
5. Let F be a finite field of characteristic p. If n = [F : Zp], prove that there
(x3 + x -I- [1])(x3 + x2 -I- [1]). Hence, x8 — x = z(z-|- [1])(z3 + z + [l])(re3 + x2 4- [1]).
exists c e F such that c is algebraic of degree n over Zp and F = Zp(c).
0 Exercise 6 Find the roots of x3 4- x2 4- [1] in Z2(A), where A is as defined 6. If F is a finite field of pn elements, p a prime and n a positive integer,
in Worked-Out Exercise 1. prove that [F : Zp] = n.

Solution: [0] is a root of x, [1] is a root of x 4- [1], and A, A2, A 4- A2 are 7. Describe the splitting field of x32 — x over Z3.
roots of x3 + x + [1]. Hence, [1] 4- A, [1] + A2, and [1] + A + A2 are roots of
x3 4- x2 -I- [1]. 8. Prove that there exists an irreducible polynomial of arbitrary degree n
over Zp.
0 Exercise 7 Find the roots of x3 4- x + [1] in Z2(/z), where p is as defined in 9. If F is a subfield of GF(pn), prove that F ~ GF(pm)y where m|n.
Worked-Out Exercise 2.
10. Show that if m and n are positive integers such that m|n, then GF(pn)
Solution: [0] is a root of x, [1] is a root of x + [1], and /z, /z2, [1] 4- /z + /z2 are contains a unique subfield GF(pm), pm—1 divides pn — 1, whence rrpm_1 — 1
roots of a?3-}- x2 4- [1]. Hence, [ll + u, [ll -Ell2, and u + p2 are roots of z3 4- 3: ±dll. divides xp -1 — 1 and so xp — x divides xp — x.
PuTi_c_ PltySi.c_A. Pity
23.1. FINITE FIELDS 498 Chapter 24
11. Let F be a field containing Zp and /(x) be a polynomial over Zp. If c E F
is a root of /(x), prove that cp is also root of /(x).
Galois Theory and
12. Let f{x) = xp - x — [1] € Zp[x]. Show that a splitting field of f(x) over
Zp is Zp(c), where c is a root of f(x). Applications
13. Let F be a field and G and H be subgroups of F*. If G and H have order
n, prove that G = H.

14. If F is a field such that F* is cyclic, prove that F is finite. The approach used today to present Galois theory is due to Artin. Artin
reformulated the theory as an abstract relationship between a field extension
and its group of automorphisms. He succeeded in disassociating Galois theory
from the solvability of algebraic equations.

24.1 Normal Extensions

Definition 24.1.1 Let F/K be an. algebraic field extension. F/K is called a
normal extension if every irreducible polynomial f(x) E K [x] such that f(x)
has a root in F, splits into linear factors in F[rr].
An example of a normal extension, which comes quickly to mind is F/K,
where F is an algebraic closure of K. A more trivial example of a normal
extension is F/K, where F — K. The field extension Q(v^)/Q is not a normal
extension since the minimal polynomial of s/2 over Q is x3 — 2 has two complex
roots and Q(v^) does not contain these roots. (Example 24.2.7 to follow.)
Let F/K be a field extension and F be a subset of the polynomial ring
2f[z]. Then F is called a splitting field for F if for all f(x) E F, /(z) splits
into linear factors over F and for all proper intermediate fields L of F/K, there
exists f(x) E F, which does not split over L. If F consists of a single polynomial
g(x) and F is a splitting field for F, we say that F is a splitting field for g(x).
Lemma 24.1.2 Let F/K be a finite field extension and c E F. Then there
exists a field L D F and a polynomial g(x) E K[x] such that the following
properties hold.
(i) L is a splitting field for g(x) over K.
(ii) Every irreducible factor of g(x) in AT [z] has a. root in F.
(Hi) c is a root of g(x).

“PilTlc. TfLaJJccj^xL^LG-aJ. ~Plt-y.Al.c-A. “Puii_c_ Tltxi£Jt.cj^t-a£lcal “Plt_y_ALc-A

24.1. NORMAL EXTENSIONS 501 24.1. NORMAL EXTENSIONS 502

Proof. Let {vi, V2, ■ • •, vn} be a basis of F over K. Let g(x) be the product root of p(x). Hence, both the roots of p(x) are in F. Thus, F is the splitting
of the minimal polynomials of c, iq, V2,..., vn over K. Then property (ii) and field of p(x) over K. Consequently, A is a normal extension of K.
(iii) hold. Let L be a splitting field of g(x) over F. Then L = A(ri,r2, • • ■ , rm),
where ri,r2,... ,rm are the roots of g(x). Since E {ri,r2, • - • ,rm} <> Exercise 2 Let F = and L = Q(v^2). Show that F is a normal
and F = K(vi,V2, ..., vn), L is a splitting field of g(x) over K. ■ extension of L, L is a normal extension of Q, but F is not a normal
extension of Q.
Theorem 24.1.3 Let F/K be a finite field extension. Then the following con­
ditions are equivalent. Solution: Now [F : L] = 2 = [L : Q]. Hence, F is a normal extension of
(i) F is normal over K. L, L is a normal extension of Q by Worked-Out Exercise 1. Now x4 — 2 E Q[x]
(ii) F is a splitting field over K for some polynomial g(x) E AT[x). is irreducible over Q and ^2 is a root of x4 — 2. Thus, x4 — 2 is the minimal
(iii) For every field LJ F, all K-isomorphisms from, F into L map F onto polynomial of v^2. Now the roots of x4 — 2 are ±^2 and ±i\/2. Since ±i\/2 A,
F, i.e., are K-automorphisms of F. F is not the splitting field of x4 — 2. Therefore, F is not a normal extension of
Q
Proof. Suppose that statement (i) holds. By Lemma 24.1.2, there is a
polynomial g(x) E K[x] and a field L D F such that L is a splitting field for 0 Exercise 3 Let AT be a field of characteristic 0. Let F/K be a finite normal
g{x) over K and every irreducible factor of g(x) has a root in F. Since F is extension. Let g(x) E A[x] and E be a splitting field of g(x) over F.
normal over K, each of these irreducible factors of g(x) splits over K. Hence, Then E/K is a normal extension.
g(x) splits over K. Thus, F = L and so (ii) holds.
Suppose that statement (ii) holds. Then F is a splitting field over K for Solution: By Corollary 22.1.20, F — AT(a) for some a E F. Let hfx) be the
some polynomial g(x) E K[x]. Let L be a field containing F and a be a K- minimal polynomial of a over K. Now h,(x) splits over F. Let f(x) = g(x)h(x).
isomorphism of F into L. Then a(F) is a splitting field for a(g(xf) = g(x) over Then K C F C E and /(x) splits over E. Let L be the splitting field of f(x)
o(A) = K. Since g(x) has a unique splitting field over K and contained in L, over K in E. Then K C L C E. Now a E L and hence AT C A C A. Thus, L is
o(F) = F. Hence, (iii) holds. the splitting field of g(x) over A. Hence, E = L. Consequently, E/K is normal,
Suppose that statement (iii) holds. Let c E F and /(x) be the minimal by Theorem 24.1.3.
polynomial of c over K. By Lemma 24.1.2, there is a field L D F and a poly­
nomial g(x) E AT[x] such that L is a splitting field for g(x) over K and c is a 24.1.2 Exercises
root of g(x). Thus, f(x)\g(x) and so f(x) splits over L. For each root b of f(x)
1. (i) Show that C is a normal extension of R.
in L, there exists a A’-isomorphism a of K(c) onto K(b) such that a(c) = b by
Theorem 21.2.8. By Theorem 21.2.10, a can be extended to a K-automorphism (ii) Is R a normal extension of Q?
cr of L such that cr(c) = b. Since a maps F onto F by hypothesis, b E F. Hence,
2. Let K C L C A be a chain of fields. Suppose that FjK is a normal
all the roots of f(x) in L lie in F. Since f(x) splits over L, it must split over
extension.
F. Therefore, (iii) holds. ■
(i) Show that F/L is a normal extension.
24.1.1 Worked-Out Exercises (ii) Is L/K a normal extension? Justify your answer.
0> Exercise 1 Let F/K be a field extension. Suppose that [F : K] = 2. Show 3. Let K C Lx, L% C A be fields. Suppose that L\/K and L^/K are normal
that F is a normal extension of K. extensions. Show that (Ai L\L2)/K is a normal extension.

Solution: Let a E F be such that a K. Since [F : A?(a)] • [A(a) : K] = 4. 1Let F/K be an algebraic field extension. Let K be the algebraic closure
[F : A] = 2 and a A, [A (a) : K] = 2. Let p(x) be the minimal polynomial of of K such that F C K. Prove that the following are equivalent.
a over K. Then [A(a) : K] = degp(x) = 2. Now p(x) — (x — a)h(x) for some
(i) F/K is a normal extension.
h,(x) E A[z]. Thus, degTi(x) = 1. Suppose h(x) = ex + d for some c, d E F,
c / 0. Then — cT^d E F and — c~xd is a root oUi(x). Therefore, —c^djs a 1This exercise requires Section 21.3.
KiLhjC- T^La±it-CJ^-a±/LCXLL
24.2. GALOIS THEORY 503 24.2. GALOIS THEORY 504

(ii) If cr : F —> K is a K-homomorphism, then a is an automorphism of Definition 24.2.2 Let G be a group of automorphisms of the fl,eld F. An ele­
F. ment a € F is called fixed by G if o(a) = a for all a G G. We denote by Fq
the set of all a G F such that a is fixed by G.
(iii) F is the splitting field of a family of polynomials in
Theorem 24.2.3 Let G be a group of automorphisms of the field F. Then Fq
is a, subfield of F. called the fixed field of F for G.
24.2 Galois Theory

We have now reached the point where we can begin our study of Galois theory. Proof. Note that Fg / 0 since 0,1 € Fq. Let a, 6 G Fq. Then for all a € G,
Roughly speaking, this theory relates the roots of a polynomial to certain a(a — 6) — o(a) — a(b) = a — b so that a — b 6 Fq- If b y^ 0, then <a(ab_1) =
permutations of these roots. More specifically, if F is a splitting field for some a(a)a(b~1') = a(a)a(b)-1 = ab~r so that ab_1 G Fq. Thus, Fq is a subfield of
polynomial f(x) over a field K such that F/K is separable, then this theory F ■
sets up a one-one inclusion reversing correspondence between the intermediate
Definition 24.2.4 Let F/K be a, field extension. Let G(F/K) denote the set
fields of F/K and the subgroups of a particular group of automorphisms of
of all K-automorphisms of F.
F/K. These results can be applied to the solution by “radicals” of the equation
f(x) = 0. This application will be discussed in Section 24.4. Theorem 24.2.5 Let F/K be a field extension. Then G(F/K) is a. subgroup
of the group of all autom,orphisms of F and is called the group of automor­
Theorem 24.2.1 Let F be a. field and Qi,...,an be distinct automorphisms phisms of F relative to K.
of F. Then for all a E F and for all a\,... ,an e F,
Proof. Clearly the identity map is in G(F/K) so that G(F/K) y£ (f. Let
aiai(a) 4--- F anan(a) = 0 Q!,/3 G G(F/K). Then for all k 6 K, (a o/?_1)(/c) = a(/?_1(A;)) = a(k) = k.
Thus, Q'O^1 e G(F/K) so that G^F/K) is a group. ■
implies tha.t ai = • • • = an = 0.
We ask the reader to verify that any automorphism of F fixes the prime
Proof. The proof is by induction on n. If n — 1 and aiai(a) = 0 for all subfield of F.
a 6 F, then ax = 0 since cvi(l) y^ 0. Assume the theorem is valid for any m
distinct automorphisms, where 1 < m < n. Suppose Theorem 24.2.6 Let H be a finite set of automorphisms of the field F. Then
(i) \H\ < [F : Fh] and
aicti(a) 4- • • • 4- anan(a) = 0 for all a € F (24.1) (ii) if H is a. group, then |F| = [F : Fh].

and for some ai,..., an G F, not all zero, say, ax y^ 0. Since the automorphisms Proof. (i) Suppose \H\ > [F : Fh]- Then [F : Fh] = n < oo for some n. Let
o?i,... are distinct, there exists b G F such that &i(b) / on(5). Since Eq. bi, ..., bn be a basis for F/Fh- There exist n 4-1 distinct automorphisms on,
(24.1) is valid for every element of F, we have aXQ'1(a6) 4---\-anan(ab) = 0 or ..., an_|_i in G(F/Fh)- Then the system of n homogeneous linear equations in
the n 4- 1 unknowns xi, ..., xn+i,
aiaq(a)ai(6) 4- • ■ ■ 4- anan(a)an(b') = 0 for all a G F. (24.2)
ai(bi)xi 4--- F on+i(6i)zn+i = 0, z= 1,2,..., n
Multiplying Eq. (24.1) by on(6) and subtracting this result from Eq. (24.2),
we obtain has a nontrivial solution x\ = ai, ..., zn+i = an+i in F. Thus,

+ • • • + Q^n-i-i (^i)O’n-i-i = Oj i — 1,2,, ti. (24.3)

ai(oi(5) - an(6))oii(a) 4-- + an_i(an-i(&) - on(5))an_i(a) = 0
Now every element a € F has the form a = kibi, ki e Fh and so
for all a G F Since ai(6) y^ an(b), ai(aa(6) — an(6)) y^ 0. However, this
n
contradicts the induction hypothesis. Hence, the theorem is valid for all positive = ^2kiajaj(bi), j = l,2,..., n + 1.
integers n. ■
2-1 “PlcyS/LC-A-
24.2. GALOIS THEORY 505 24.2. GALOIS THEORY 506

Then using Eq. (24.3) and the fact that each oti fixes Aq,..., kn we obtain Example 24.2.7 Consider the field extension Q(v^2)/Q- Let a be any auto­
morphism ofQ(y/2). Then a fixes every element of Q. We have
ai«i(a) +-- F an+ian+i(a) = £^=1 ki(ai&i(bi) + • • • 4- an+iQn+i (6J)
= 0 H^2))3 = ct((^2)3) = a(2) = 2.

for all a G F. However, this contradicts Theorem 24.2.1. Hence, \H\ < [F : Fh]. Hence, a(\//2) is a root ofx3 — 2. Thus, q(v^) = \/2 because the other two cube
(ii) By (i), \H\ < [F : Fh]. We now show that \H\ > [F : Fh]. Suppose roots ofx3~2 a,re complex numbers, namely, *\/2(—j-Fz2^) and v//2(—z2^)
\H\ < [F : Fh]. Set \H\ = n. Then there are elements 6i,... ,bn+i of F which and so are not members of Q(v//2). Hence, a is the identity map on Q(v^2).
are linearly independent over Fh. There exists a nontrivial solution ai,..., an+i Thus, = {e}. But Q(v/2)g(q(^)/q) = Q(v^) D Q We note
in F satisfying the system of n homogeneous linear equations in the n 4- 1 that Q(v//2) is not the splitting field of the polynomial x3 — 2 over Q. Now
unknowns jq,..., zn+i, 1 = |G(Q(v/5)/Q)I < [Q(v^) : Q]. If the other two roots of t3 — 2 were
present, then we would have found an a such that a(\/2) y/2.
zi<*i(&i) +-- F xn+1ai(bn+1) = 0, z = 1,2,..., n, (24.4)

where G H. From all such nontrivial solutions of Eq. (24.4), choose one Example 24.2.8 Let F/K be any field extension of characteristic p > 0 such
having the smallest number, say, m of nonzero members. We have m > 1 else that there exists a G F, a K, and a is purely inseparable over K. Let a be
aiO!i(&i) = 0 and hence ai = 0. (Note that aq(6i) 0 since Qi is one-one and any automorphism of F, which fixes every element of K. Let e be a positive
integer such that ape = k G K. Then (a(d) — a)pe = a(a)pe — ape = a(ape) — ap&
bi 0.) Upon reordering we have
= a(k) — k = k — k = 0. Since a field has no nonzero nilpotent elements,
Q-l OLi (6]) “F ' " 4" CL'mOl.i (byri) — 0? — 1? 2, . . . , 71 (24.5) a(a) — a = 0 or a(d) — a. Hence, Fq^f/k} — F(a) K. Here we note
that because of the presence of a, F/K would, not be separable even if it were
and no ai = 0. Let ai be the identity map. Then algebraic.

diF 4~ ■ * * 4” 0-771^771 — 0) For a field extension F/K, we will want F^py#) = K. The above two
examples point out difficulties we must overcome.
where we take am = 1. (If am 1, then multiply through by a^1.) Since
6i,..., are linearly independent over F#, not all di,..., dm are in F#, say, Theorem 24.2.9 Let H be a finite group of autom,orphism,s on the field F.
di Fh- Thus, for some aq, ay(di) dp Apply aj to Eq. (24.5). Then Then H = G(F/FH).

a>(alaK&i)) 4--- F czj(dma^(bm)) = 0, z = l,2,..., n

Proof. Clearly H C G(F/Fh). By an argument similar to that of the
first part of the proof of Theorem 24.2.6, G(F/Fh) is a finite group. Hence,
or
by Theorem 24.2.6, |G(F/Fh)| = [F : Fg(f/Fh)]. Now Fh = Fg(f/fh) since
aj(ai)a^(6i) 4--- F a/dm)a^(6m) = 0, 2 = 1,2,..., n, (24.6) Fh Fg(f/fh) and if a G Fh, then for all a G G(F/Fh), ce(«) = cl so that
a € Fg-(F/Fh). Therefore, \H\ = [F : FH] = [F : Fg(f/Fh)] = \G(F/FH)\. Since
where aij = aj o ai. Since H is a group, {aqj,..., anj} = H. If we relabel the -F C g\f/Fh) and G(F/Fh) is finite, we have H = G(F/Fh). ■
Eqs. in (24.6) and then subtract Eq. (24.6) from Eq. (24.5), we obtain
Let us pause to see what we have so far. Let F/K be a finite field exten­
sion. We desire a one-one inclusion reversing correspondence between all the
intermediate fields of F/K and all the subgroups of GfiF/K). From Examples
Since dj ay(dj) 0, d^ afj(dj), • •., —l ^-771(^772,—1), 0,..., 0 is a non­ 24.2.7 and 24.2.8, we have seen that it is possible for an intermediate field L
trivial solution of Eq. (24.4) having fewer than m nonzero members. This of F/K to be strictly contained in FQ^pfn)- Hence, a mapping
contradiction thus shows that the assumption [F : Fh] > \H\ is false. Hence,
\H\ > [F : Fh] so that [F : FH] = \H\. ■ ..............
24.2. GALOIS THEORY 507 24.2. GALOIS THEORY 508

need not be One-One since that for all z, 1 < i < n, uz is a root of a separable polynomial fUi(F) m
K[x] and fUi(x) splits over F. Thus, all the roots of the polynomial f(x) =
Fg(f/l) G(F/Fg(f/l)) = G(F/L), fu-i (F)fU2{x) ■ • • fun(F) G K[x] are in F. Since F = K(ui, U2, ..., un) and each
Ui is a root of f(x), F is the splitting field of f(x) and so F/K is normal.
but L C Fg(f/l} is possible. Note that the mapping
Since each Ui is a root of a separable polynomial over Ky it follows that F/K
is separable. Consequently, F/K is normal and separable.
Fh - H (24.8)
(ii) =>(iii) Since F/K is a finite separable extension, there exists a G F such
is one-one since by Theorem 24.2.9, H = G(F/Fh)- The mapping of (24.8) is that F = K(a). Now a is a root of a separable irreducible polynomial f(x) G
the “inverse” of (24.7), but the mapping in (24.8) does not map onto all the F[z]. Since F/K is normal, f(x) splits over F. Thus, F contains all roots of
intermediate fields of F/K. We can thus see that we need some sort of condition f(x). Hence, F is the splitting field of a separable polynomial f(x) G F[z].
on F/K to force every L = Fq^iq. Examples 24.2.7 and 24.2.8 suggest the (iii) =>(i) Suppose F is a splitting field of a separable polynomial f(x) G
condition should be that F/K be separable and be the splitting field of some F[x]. Let m be the number of distinct roots of f(x) in F, but not in K. We
polynomial over K. A similar difficulty is not encountered with G(F/ K} since prove the result by induction on m. If m = 0, then F = K and GfiF/K} = {e},
H = G(F/Fh) by Theorem 24.2.9. where e is the identity automorphism of F. Hence, K = F — FQyp/Ky Assume
that the result holds for all field extensions S/T such that S is a splitting field
Definition 24.2.10 Let F/K be a. finite field extension. If Fq^fj^ = F, of a separable polynomial g(x) G T[x] with g(x) having fewer than m > 1 roots
then G(F/K) is called, the Galois group of F/K and F/K is called, a. Galois outside of T.
extension. Let f(x) = pi(x) • •-pfc(x), where each pi(x) is irreducible and separable
in F[z]. Since m > 1, degpi(z) > 1 for some i. By renumbering if necessary,
Theorem 24.2.11 Let F/K be a finite extension. The following conditions we may assume that i = 1, i.e., degpi(z) = t > 1. Let a be a root of pi(x).
are equivalent. Then [A?(a) : K] = t. Since pi(x) is irreducible and separable, its roots a =
(i) G(F/K) is the Galois group of F/K. ^1,^2, • • • are all distinct. Thus, there exist isomorphisms oq,... ,a't such
(ii) F/K is normal and separable. that : K(a) —> K{af) with Q^(a) = a? and the elements of K are fixed by a^.
(Hi) F is the splitting field of a separable polynomial in F[t], Since F is a splitting field of f(x) over both K(a) and K(ai), the isomorphism
can be extended to an automorphism &i of F, which maps a onto ai and
Proof. Suppose [F : K] = n. Let H be a subgroup of G(F/K). Then by fixes the elements of F, i = 1, 2,..., t.
Theorem 24.2.6, \H\ = [F : FH] < [F : K] = n. Suppose now that c G Fq^f/k)- Since f(x) has fewer than m, roots outside
(i)=>(ii) Suppose G(F/K) is the Galois group of F/K. Then F(u), K{a) = FQ^p/x(a)) by our induction hypothesis. Since G(F/F(a)) C
G(F/Kf c G FG(F/K(a)) = K(a). Hence,
\G{F/K)\ = \F^K\ = n.
c = ko + k^a H--- 1- kt-ia1-1, hi G K, z = 0,1,..., t - 1.
Since F/K is finite, F/K is an algebraic extension and F = K(ui, U2, ..., un)
Thus,
for some Ui € F, 1 < i < n. Let G(F/K) = {e = 01,02, • • Let a G F
c*i(c) = c = ko + kiai H--- F Zct-xa--1, i = 1,...
and a = a±, az, ..., am be distinct elements of the set {a«(a) | i = 1,... ,n}.
Now aj o e G(F/K) for all i and j. Let ai = Oi(a), i = 1,2,... ,n. Then Therefore,
= aj(a*(a)) = aj 0 ai(a) = or(a) = ar for some r, 1 < r < m. Since g(x) = (/co - c) + k]X H--- F kt-^x^1
0^ is ah automorphism of F, Ofc(aJ = otk(aj) if and only if ai = aj. Thus, has t distinct roots 0^,02,... ,at in F. Since deg <7(2) < t, g(x) must be the zero
for all k, 1 < k < n, Ofc(ai), Ofc(d2), -Ofc(am) are distinct elements. Let polynomial. Hence, /cq — c = 0 or c = /co G K. Consequently, K = FQ^p/xy ■
fa(x) = (x—ai)(x—az) • • • (x—am). Then all roots of /a(z) are distinct and lie in
F. Also, the factors of fa(F) are merely permuted by any Oj of G(F/K). Thus, Corollary 24.2.12 Let F/K be a finite extension. The following conditions
the coefficients of fa(F) remain unaltered by any o* 6 G(F/K). Therefore, are equivalent.
fa(F) € K[x] since K = Fa^p/py Hence, a = ai is a root of a separable (i) \G(F/K)\ = [F-.K].
polynomial fa(F) in F[x] and fa(x) splits over F. From this, it also follows (ii) F/K is normal and separable.
24.2. GALOIS THEORY 509 24.2. GALOIS THEORY 510

Proof. Write G = G(F/K). \H\ = 1|. Hence, aHa 1 = H'. Conversely, suppose aHa 1 = H'.
(i) =>(ii)Now K C Fg C F and [F : K] = [F : FG][FG : K]. Also, [F ■. K] = Then for all a G L and for all (3 G H, a(/3(a“1(a(a)))) = cv(/3(a)) = a(a).
\G(F/K)\ = [F : Fg]. Hence, [FG : K] = 1 and so FG = K. Thus, F/K is Thus, a(L) C FH' = L' Now \H'\ = \H\ . Therefore, [F : L] = [F : L'], whence
normal and separable by Theorem 24.2.11. [a(L) :K] = [L:K] = [L' : K]. Consequently, a(L) = L'.
(ii) =>(i) Since F/K is normal and separable by Theorem 24.2.11, K = (v) Since F/K is separable, L/K is separable and so by Corollary 24.2.12,
Fg(f/k}. Hence, \G{F/K)\ = [F : FG] = [F : #]. ■ we have L/K normal if and only if |G(L/F)| = [L : K]. We now show that
|G(L/F)| = [L : K] if and only if every isomorphism of L leaving K fixed is
We are now ready to present the one-one inclusion reversing correspondence an automorphism of L/K.
between the intermediate fields of a Galois extension and the subgroups of its
For any a € G, a determines an isomorphism of L leaving K fixed. On
Galois group.
the other hand, if (3 is an isomorphism of L leaving K fixed, then since L/K
Theorem 24.2.13 (The Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory) Let is normal, (3 can be extended to an automorphism of F leaving K fixed by
F/K be a finite normal and separable field extension. Let G = G(F/K), Theorem 21.2.10.
F = {L | L is an intermediate field of F/K}, and 5(G) be the set of all Write H = G(F/L) and set m = [G : H]. Now by (ii), m = [L : K]. Let
subgroups of G. Then the following properties hold. H = a^H, a2H, ..., amH be the distinct cosets of H in G. For a G L and
(i) K = Fg. (3 G H, (a-i o /?)(a) = a-fia) for each i since L = Fh- Thus, the elements of G
(ii) The mapping : F —+ S(G) defined by 4/(L) = G(F/L) for all L € F is in the same coset of H determine the same isomorphism of L. Conversely, if
a. one-one correspondence. The mapping 4* : 5(G) —* F defined by $(H) = Fh a(a) = a'(a) for all a G L, then a = (a-1 o a/)(a) or a-1 o a! E H so that
for all H € 5(G) is the inverse ofty. Also, for all L G F, [F : L] = |G(F/L)| a, a! determine the same coset of H in G. Therefore, the number of distinct
and [L : K] = [G : G(F/L)]. isomorphisms of L fixing the elements of K is m = [G : H]. If \G(L/K)| = m,
(Hi) Let L, L' e F. Then L' C L if and. only if G(F/L') D G(F/L). In this then every isomorphism of L fixing the elements of K must be an automorphism
case, [L : L'] = [G(F/L') : G(F/L)]. of L/K since every automorphism of L is an isomorphism of L. Conversely, if
(iv) Let L, L' € F. Let 4/(L) = H and. ^(L7) = H'. Then there exists a G G every isomorphism of L fixing the elements of K is an automorphism of L, then
such that afiL) = L' if and. only if aHa-1 = H'. \G(L/K)| is the number m of these isomorphisms. Hence, |G(L/K)| = [L : K]
(v) Let L G F. Then L/K is a normal extension if and only if G(F/L) is if and only if every isomorphism of L leaving the elements of K fixed is an
a. normal subgroup of G. In this case, automorphism of L/K, or L/K is normal if and only if every isomorphism of L
leaving the elements of K fixed is an automorphism of L leaving the elements
G(L/K) ~ G(F/K)/G(F/L). of K fixed.
Now, every isomorphism of L leaving the elements of K fixed is an auto­
Proof. (i) Immediate from Theorem 24.2.11. morphism if and only if a(L) = L for all a € G. By (iv), a(L) = L for all
(ii) Clearly T is well defined. By Theorem 24.2.9, the mapping T is onto. a e. G if and only if H = aHa~r, i.e., if and only if H is normal in G.
Suppose G(F/L) = G(F/V). Then FG(F/L} = FG(F/L'). Since F/K is finite,
If L/K is normal, then the distinct automorphisms of L fixing the elements
normal, and separable, so is F/L for every intermediate field L of F/K. By
of K correspond uniquely to the cosets of H in G. This one-one correspondence
(i), we have L = Fq^p/q = Fg(F/L') = ' Hence, the mapping 4/ is one-one.
is clearly an isomorphism of GfiL/K') and G/H since for a, a' G G, we have
From Theorems 24.2.9 and 24.2.11, it follows that 4> is the inverse of 4Z. By
that a o a' corresponds to (aHfia'H) = ao a'H. ■
Theorem 24.2.6, [F : L] = \G(F/L)\. That [L : K] = [G : G(F/L)] follows
easily by Lagrange’s theorem and Theorem 21.1.20.
(iii) Clearly L D L' if and only if G(F/L7) D G(F/L). That [L : L’\ = Let F/K be a finite normal separable field extension and L be an interme­
[G(F/L') : G(F/L)] follows by (ii) since F/L' is normal. (Since 4Z is one-one diate field of F/K. We have seen that F/L is a normal extension, but L/K is
and onto 5(G), we have L D Lf if and only if G(F/L) C G(F/L').) not necessarily normal. The above result tells us when L/K is normal.
(iv) Suppose a(L) = L'. For any a' e L', we have a(a) = a! for some a G L.
Now for all (3 e H, /3(a) = a. Therefore, q(/3(q_1 (a7))) = ce (/3(a)) = a (a) = a'.
Thus, a o 0 o a"1 e H' so that aHa-1 C H'. Now \H'\ = [F : L'] = [F : L\ = Example 24.2.14 Let S be the splitting field of the irreducible polynomial
24.2. GALOIS THEORY 511 24.2. GALOIS THEORY 512

x3 — 2 over Q such that S C C. Now substituting u — j for x. Then

x3-2 = (x - y/2fix2 + y/2x + ^4) g(u) = (u-j)3 + a(u-|)2+b(u_|) + c

= (x - y/Tfix - -^(-1 + \/3z))(x - 4^(-l - \/3z)). = u3 — au2 + ^-u — || + au2 — |a2u + ^ + — y+c
= + +c.
Thus, S = Q(x/2, 4^(-l + V^z), ^(-1 - \/3z)) = Q(^2, Now S/Q
is normal and since (x2 + v^x + ^4) is irreducible over Q(-\/2), [S' : Q] = 6. Hence, r is a root of g(u) if and only if r — | is a root of /(x).
Hence,\G(S/Q)\ = 6.
Now let /(x) = x3 + bx + c € lf[x]. Then f(x) is irreducible over K if and
The autornorphisms of G(S/Q) are completely determ,ined by where they only if f(x) has no roots in K. Over a splitting field S of /(x) over K, we have
map \/2 and y/3i. The following table defines the group G(S/Q). Set r2 =
/(x) = (x - ai)(x - a2)(x - a3),
1 + V%i)and r^ = 1 — \^3i).
where 01,02,03 G S. Thus,
e a /3a afia
& 'ft ^2 r2 rz ai + G2 + a3 = 0,

r2 7*2 ^■3 ^2 oia2 + Oio3 + a2a3 = b,

fa fa —aia2a3 = c.
t-3 n r*2 ^3 7*2

Define the discriminant D of /(x) as follows:

e Q 0 a(3 afia
fa fa fa ^2 73 72 73 D = [(a2 - ai)(a3 - ai)(a3 - a2)]2.
fai x/3z — y/Si -fai y/3i y/3i -fai
Let d = (a2 — ai)(a3 — ai)(a3 — o2). Then any JC-automorphism a of S =
The subgroups ofG(S/Q) are
2<(ai,a2,a3) leaves D fixed, i.e., a(D) = D since cv(d) is either d or — d. An
Hi = {e,a},H2 = {e,fi},H3 = {e,af3ot},H± = {e,afi,fia}. easy calculation shows that

D = —4b3 - 27c2.
The corresponding intermediate fields a.re

Li = Q(v/2),L2 = Q(r3),L3 = Q(r2),L4 = Q(^i). Theorem 24.2.15 Let /(x) = x3 + bx + c be an irreducible and separable
polynomial over the field K. Let S be a. splitting field of f(x) over K and G be
By Example 4.3.2, Hi, i = 1, 2,3, is not norm,al in G(S/Q) so Li/Q is not the Galois group of f(x) over K. Then G ~ S3 if and only if D is not a, square
normal, i = 1, 2,3. Now H^ is normal in G(S/Q) and so L^/K is norm,al. in K. If D is a square in K, then [S : K] = 3.

Let S be a splitting field over the field K for a polynomial f(x) in K[rc]. Proof. By the above discussion, D € K. Suppose d G K. Then a(d) = d
Then we call G(S/K) the Galois group of the equation f(x) = 0 or the for all a E G. Thus, no a can be an odd permutation. Hence, each a is
Galois group of the polynomial f(x). For any a 6 G(S/K) and for any in the alternating group A3. Conversely, if a € A3, then a(d) = d. Since
root a of f(x) in S’, 0 = o(/(a)) = f(a(n)). Thus, o(a) is a root of f(x) in /(x) is separable and irreducible, the roots of /(x) are distinct. Therefore,
S. Since a is a K-automorphism of S, distinct roots of f(x) map onto distinct G {e}. Thus, the above argument shows that G — A3 if and only if d 6 K.
roots. Hence, a acts like a permutation on the roots of G(S/K). Let 7tq denote Consequently, G = S3 if and only if d K. If d 6 K, then G = A3 and |G| = 3
the permutation of the distinct roots of f(x) induced by a. Then the mapping and so [S : K] = 3 by the fundamental theorem of Galois theory. ■
a —> 7rQ is an isomorphism of G(S/K) into Sn, where f(x) has n distinct roots.
Example 24.2.14 is one, where G(S/K) ~ S3. Theorem 24.2.16 Let f{x) = x3 4- bx + c be an irreducible and separable
Let K be a field of characteristic 0 3. Consider a cubic polynomial f(x) = polynomial over the field. K. Let S be the splitting field, of /(x) over K. Then
x$ + ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c € K.^Ne eliminate the quadratic term bv S = K(y/D,r) for a.ny root r of /(x).
77u.fi.c_ 7/Z.c.£/f.c.A*t.<i.£t.c.a.Z J_tc.A
24.2. GALOIS THEORY 513 24.2. GALOIS THEORY 514

Proof. Now [Jf(r) : K] = 3. If S = K(r), then S = K(\/D,r). Suppose (iii) Let /(x) = (x2 — 2)(x2 — 3) = x4 — 5x2 + 6 e Q[x]. Since /(x) = (x +
S D K(r). Then [S : K] = 6 and [S : K(r)] = 2. Since [S : K] = 6, G = S3, x/2)(x — x/2) (x + x/3) (x — x/3), /(x) splits over Q(x/2, x/3). Thus, Q(x/2, x/3)
where G is the Galois group of f(x) over K and so d K. Since d is a root of is a splitting field of /(x) over Q.
x2 — D over K, x2 — D is irreducible over K. Since 2 and 3 are relatively prime, (iv) /(x) = (x2 — 2)(x2 — 3) is a separable polynomial over Q. Since
x2 — D is irreducible over K(r). Thus, S = K(y/D,r). ■ Q(x/2, x/3) is the splitting field of /(x) by Theorem 24.2.11, it follows that
Q(x/2, x/3) is a normal extension of Q.
Example 24.2.17 Consider the polynomial x3 — 4x + 2 e Q. Then x3 — 4x + (v) By the fundamental theorem of Galois theory 24.2.13(i), we find that
2 is irreducible over Q by Eisenstein’s criterion. Now D = —463 — 27c2 = |G(F/Q)| = [F : Q] = 4. Now we know that Z4 (the cyclic group of order 4)
—4(—4)3 — 27(2)2 = 148. Thus, D is not a, square in Q. Hence, the Galois and Z2 x Z2 (the Klein 4-group) are the only (up to isomorphism) groups of
group of x3 — 4x + 2 over Q is isomorphic to S3. S = Q(\/l48,r), where r is
order 4. Hence, either G(F/Q) ~ Z4 or G(F/Q) ~ Z2 x Z2. If G(F/Q) ~ Z4,
any root of x3 — 4x 4- 2. then (7(F/Q) has only one subgroup of order 2. Thus, by the fundamental
theorem of Galois theory, there exists only one intermediate field L of F/Q
24.2.1 Worked-Out Exercises such that [L : Q] = 2. But Q(x/2) and Q(x/3) are intermediate fields of F/Q
such that [Q(x/2) : Q] = 2 and [Q(x/3) : Q] = 2. Hence, G(F/Q) Z4.
Exercise 1 Let f(x) = xn — 1 G Q[x]. Show that the Galois group of f(x)
Consequently, G(F/Q) ~ Z2 x Z2.
over Q is commutative.

Solution: Let £ = e~, where i2 = —1. Then the roots of f(x) are 1, £, <0> Exercise 3 Let u be a complex number such that u 1 and u is a root of
£2, ..., £n_1. Clearly K = Q(£) is a splitting field of f(x). Let a, (3 G G(K/Q). the polynomial x5 - 1 e Q[x], Show that G(Q(-u)/Q) ~ Z4.
Now a(£) and /?(£) are roots of /(x). Hence, a(£) = £k and /3(£) = for some
, 1 < k, j' < n — 1. Now (o o /9)(£) =
k, j‘ = (J3 o a)(£). Let y G K. Then y = Solution: x5 — 1 = (x - l)(x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1). Hence, u is a root of
EFJo1 a^‘ foT some a; £ Q, 1 < Z < n. Now (a o /3)(y) = (a o /3)(E?=o a^‘) = /(x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1. By Worked-Out Exercise 1 (page 379), we find
° = E"Jo a‘(a ° = ^1=0 Similarly, (J3 o a)(y) = that /(x) is irreducible in Q[x]. From Theorem 24.3.3, Q(u) is a splitting field
alCjkt ■ Therefore, qo (3 = (3 o a. Consequently, G(Jf/Q) is commutative. of /(x). Since all roots of /(x) are distinct, /(x) is a separable polynomial.
Hence, Q(tz) is a normal extension of Q. By Corollary 24.2.12,
<0> Exercise 2 (i) Find a primitive element for the extension Q(v/2, v3) of Q.
(ii) Find [Q(v3,v3):Q]. |G(Q(u)/Q)| = [Q(u):Q]=4.
(iii) Show that Q(a/2, v3) is a splitting field of some polynomial /(x)
Now u,n2,u3,n4 are the four distinct roots of /(x) and Q(u) = Q(tt2) =
over Q. Q(u3) = Q(ti4). Hence, there exists cr e G(Q(u)/Q) such that a(u) = u2.
(iv) Prove that Q(x/2, v3) is a normal extension of Q. Thus,
(v) If F = Q(\/2, \/3), find the group G(F/Q). a2(u) = = cr(w2) = cr(u)a(u) = it4,

Solution: (i) u = \/24-V3 6 Q(V3, a/3). Thus, Q(\/2+v3) C Q(x/2, v3). a3(u) = cr(cr2('u)) = <r(it4) = u8 = it3,
Now y/2+\/3 6 Q(v^+V3). Therefore, € Q(\/2+v3) and so v3—\/3 6
and
Q«3 + x/3). Since \/2 = ±(2v3) = j((x/2 + \/3) + (v3 - v3)), it follows
cr4(it) = cr(it3) = it6 = it.
that-\/2 € Q(a/2 + v3). Again a/3 = j((\/2 + x/3) — (x/2 — x/3)) shows that
x/3 € Q(x/2 + x/3). Thus, Q(x/2, x/3) C Q(x/2 + x/3). Hence, Q(x/2 + x/3) = So we find that a, tr2, cr3, and a4 are distinct and a, a2, a3, cr4 e G(Q(it)/Q).
Q(x/2,x/3). Therefore, G(Q(u)/Q) is a cyclic group of order 4. Consequently, G(Q(u)/Q) ~
(ii) [Q(x/2, x/3) : Q] = [Q(v3,x/3) : Q(x/2)][Q(x/2 ) : Q]. Now x2 — 2 is the Z4.
minimal polynomial of Q(x/2 ) over Q. Also, x2 — 3 is the minimal polynomial
of Q(x/2 , x/3) over Q(x/2) by Example 21.1.21. Hence, [Q(x/2, x/3) ■ Q] = <0 Exercise 4 Show that the Galois group of the polynomial /(x) = x3 — 5
2-2 = 4. over Q is isomorphic to S3.
Pulic. TfLaJJt-C-^t-aJlc-al 'PhySlcS.
‘ KiLhjc- T^La±it.cj^-a±S.cxLL Kh-ySl.cS-
24.2. GALOIS THEORY 515 24.2. GALOIS THEORY 516

Solution: Let id = —. Then id2 = Then u = ^5, izid and 0 Exercise 6 Find the Galois group of the polynomial x4 - 2 over Q.
vw2 are the three distinct roots of f(x). Thus, the splitting field of f(x) over
Q is Q(o,uw,ow2) = Q(uyw). Q is of characteristic 0. Hence, Q(u,w) is a Solution: From Eisenstein’s criterion, it follows that x4 — 2 is irreducible
normal extension of Q. Therefore, over Q. Now u = ^2 is a root of x4 — 2. Also,

|G(Q(u,cu)/Q)| = [Q(o,w):Q]. x4 — 2 = (x — v//2)(a; 4- v//2)(a; -I- 2v/2)(t — i^2).

Now Hence, the splitting field of x4—2 is Q( ^2, —^2, 2^2, — itfty = Q(v/2, =
[Q(w,w) : Q] = [Q(o,w) : Q(o)][Q(o) : Q]. Q(v/2,i) = Q(u, 2). Now
The minimal polynomial of cd over Q(u) is z2+z+l and the minimal polynomial
[Q(u,i) : Q] = [Q(u,i) : Q(o)][Q(u) : Q].
of u over Q is t3 - 5. Consequently, [Q(u,w) : Q] = 2 ♦ 3 = 6. Thus, we find
that <?(Q(o,iu)/Q) is a group of order 6 which is (up to isomorphism) either The minimal polynomial of u over Q is x4 — 2 and the minimal polynomial of
Z6 or S3. If G(Q(u,id)/Q) ~ Z6, then G(Q(u, cd)/Q) has only one subgroup i over Q(u) is x2 4- 1. Thus,
of order 2, i.e., G(Q(w,id)/Q) has only one subgroup of index 3. But Q(o,w)
contains three distinct subfields Q(u), Q(ocv), Q(uid2), [Q(o,i) : Q] =2-4 = 8.

[Q(u) : Q] = [Q(ucv) : Q] = [Q(uw2) : Q] = 3. Also, Q(?z,2) is the splitting field of the separable polynomial x4 — 2. Hence,
Q(o, i) is a normal extension of Q. Therefore, by the fundamental theorem of
Hence, G(Q(u,cd)/Q) •£. Zq. Consequently, G(Q(o,u)/Q) ~ S3. Galois theory, it follows that |G(Q(o,i)/Q)| = 8. Now {1, ^2, (v^)2, (v^)3,
2, 2^2, 2(^2)2, i(^2)3} is a basis of (Q(u, 2) over Q. Let a E Q(«, 2). Then
0 Exercise 5 Let 7? be a prime integer and m be a positive integer. Find the
there exist ao, ai, <22, a3, a4> ^5? a6> and 07 in Q such that
Galois group of the polynomial f(x) = xp — x over Zp.
a= uq + uj \f2 + a2 (v^)2 + 03 ('v//2)3 + 042 + a^i \[2 + ag^( V^)2 + 072 (v^)3 •
Solution: The roots of f(x) over Zp form the Galois field, say, F with
pm elements. Now [F : Zp] = m and F is the splitting field of xpm — x over
If a G G(Q(u,i)/Q), then
Zp (Theorem 23.1.2). By Theorem 22.1.12, Zp is perfect. Thus, F/Zp is a
separable extension. Also, F is a normal extension of Zp. Hence, by Corollary 01(0) = ao + aia(^2) + O2Qf(v^)2 + a3Q;(v/5)^ + 0401(2)4-
24.2.12, we find that |G(F/Zp)| = m. Define a : F —> F by a (a) = ap. Let a, b 05o(z)ce(v/2) + aQa(i)a(-^2)2 + 0701(2) q( ^2)3.
be two distinct elements of F. Then a (a) — a(b) = ap — b? = (a — b)p ± 0.
Thus, a is one-one. Also, F consists of a finite number of elements. Hence, a Thus, a(a) will be known if we determine a(\/2) and 0(2). Since the minimal
is also onto F. Now polynomial of \^2 is x4 — 2 G Q [x] and the minimal polynomial of 2 is x2 + 1 G
Q[x], a(^2) is a root of x4 — 2 and 0(2) is a root of x2 + 1 . Hence, a(\/2) is
a (a 4- 6) = (a 4- b)p = ap + b? = <7 (a) 4- a(b) one of v^2, — -^2, —i\/2 and 0(2) is one of i and —i. It now follows that
G(Q(u, i)/Q) has eight elements. The eight elements of G(Q(u, i)/Q) are
and
given by the following table
a(a5) = (a6)p = afbP = a(a)a(b)
for all a, b G F. Therefore, a is an automorphism of F. If a G Zp, then ap = a O!0 01 02 Q3 014 a7
^2 ^2 -^2 -i^2 ^2 -^2 -i-s/2
and hence a(a) = a. Thus, it follows that <7 G G(F/ZP). For any positive
integer A:, ak E G{F/Zp) and crfc(a) = ap for all a G F. Since every element of 2 2 2 2 2 —2 —2 —i —i
F is a root of xp — x, am(a) = ap = a for all a G F. Hence, am is the identity
element of <7(F/Zp). Suppose for some r, 1 < r < m, ar = e. Then ap = a for Now
all a G F. Thus, every element of F is a root of xpr — x over Zp. Since xp - x (02 o ae)(u) = a2(iu) = 012(2)^2(0) = 2(20) = — u
has at most pT roots, |F| < pT < pm, a contradiction. Consequently, o(cr) = m
and so G = (a).
Puiuc. lltxi£Jt-CJ^-a£lc-a-L PhySlcS
24.2. GALOIS THEORY 517 24.2. GALOIS THEORY 518

Consequently, 0200^6 0 (*6OQ{2- Therefore, we find that G(Q(u,i)/Q) is a non- 24.2.2 Exercises
commutative group of order 8. Hence, <7(Q(u,i)/Q) ~ D4 or <7(Q(u,i)/Q) —Qs
1. Find the Galois group of C/R. Illustrate the Galois correspondence.
Now Qq has only one subgroup of index 4, but there are more than one inter­
mediate field of Q(u,i)/Q of dimension 4 over Q, namely, Q(u) and Q(iu). 2. Find the degree of the following field extension F over Q, the smallest
Thus, <7(Q(u,i)/Q ~ D4. extension N of F normal over Q, and the Galois group of N/Q.
(i) f = q(A ^2).
0 Exercise 7 Find all proper subfields of Q(-/2, \/3).
(ii) F = Q(V2 + ^2).
Solution: Let F = Q(i/2,5/3). Then from Worked-Out Exercise 2 (page 3. Show that the Galois group of the polynomial (z2 — 2) (x2 — 3) over Q is
513), G(F/Q) ~ Z2 x Z2. Now Z2 x Z2 has only three nontrivial subgroups.
isomorphic to Z2 x Z2.
Each of these subgroups is of index 2. Since Q(\/2), Q(x/3), Q(v/6) are inter­
mediate fields of Q(V^, a/3)/Q and [Q(-/2) ■ Q] = [Q(v/3) : Q] = (Q(\/6) • 4. What are the possible degrees over Q of the splitting field of x3 + ax2 +
Q] = 2, it follows that Q(-\/2), Q(-/3), and Q(\/6) are the only intermediate bx + c e QM ? For each such degree, find an f(x) of degree 3 in Q[ar]
fields of Q(%/2, \/3)/Q. Again Q is a subfield of F and Q has no proper sub­ whose splitting field has this degree over Q. Can a field normal over Q
fields. Hence, Q, Q(-/2), Q(>/3), and Q(\/6) are the only proper subfields of be found in each case?
F.
5. Find the Galois group G of the polynomial x3 — x — 1 over Q. Determine
all subgroups of G and find all corresponding subfields of the splitting
<0> Exercise 8 Find the Galois group of the field extension
field. Let ai, a2,03 denote the roots of x3 — x — 1. Determine Q(d), where
d= (a2 — ai)(d3 — ai)(a3 —
Q(^>zi+iy3)/Q
6. Find the Galois group G of the following polynomials over Q.
Find all subgroups of this group and find all corresponding intermediate (i) (x2 — 3z + l)2(x3 — 2).
fields in the above extension according to the fundamental theorem of (ii) t4 + x2 + 1.
Galois theory.
7. Show that the Galois group of the polynomial (x2 — 2) (z3 — 3) over Q is
Solution: Let F = Q(v^5, u»), where co = From Worked-Out isomorphic to S3 x Z2. Find all subfields of the splitting field over Q.
Exercise 4 (page 514), we find that G(F/Q) ~ S3. S3 has four nontrivial
8. Let F be a splitting field of a polynomial f(x) over a field K. Prove
subgroups Hi = {e, (1 2)}, H2 = {e, (1 3)}, H3 = {e, (2 3)}, and H4 = {e, (1
that the group G(F/K) is isomorphic to a group of permutations of the
2 3), (1 3 2)}. The index of H4 is 2. Hence, the corresponding subfield of H4 is
distinct roots of f(x).
QH-
Again [S3 : H^ = [S3 : H2] = [S3 : Jf3] = 3 and [Q(u) : Q] = [Q(^) : Q] = 9. Find the Galois group of f(x) = 0 over the field Q, where /(x) = x3 — 7.
[Q(iiu;2) : Q] = 3, where u = -\/5. Let ai = u, a2 = uw, and 0,3 = uw2 and
1 w ai, 2 a2, and 3 <23. Now 10. Find all intermediate fields of Q(2,5/7)/Q.

11. Show that the Galois group of the polynomial equation x3 — 2 = 0 is

(1 2) ai —> a2
isomorphic to that of x3 — 3 — 0 over Q.
d2 —>
<13 a3- 12. Let F = Q(\/2, x/5, \/7). Find the order of (7(F/Q).

Thus, the intermediate field ^-corresponding to Hi is Q(uu»2). Similarly, the 13. Let F = Q(\/3,-/ii). Find the subgroups of the group G(F/Q). Find
intermediate field corresponding to H2 is Q(ttu>) and the intermediate field the corresponding intermediate fields. Find all normal extensions of Q
corresponding to H3 is Q(u). _ _ in F.
24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 519 24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 520

14. Let F be a finite field of characteristic p and [F : Zp] = n. Show that K[z]. Then F = K and so G — T. Hence, |G| = n. ■
F/Zp is a Galois extension and G(F/Zp) is a cyclic group of order n.
Let G, AT, and n be as in Theorem 24.3.2. Let G = (w) with |G| = n.
15. Let F be a finite field of characteristic p. Let [F : Zp\ = n. Show that for Then o(u>) = n. Hence, cj is a primitive nth root of unity. Conversely, if
every positive divisor m of n, F has a unique subfield S of pm elements. is a primitive nth root of unity, then cv € G, = 1, and 1 for all
Also, show that F/S is a Galois extension and G(F/S) is a cyclic group m, 1 < m < n. Hence, is of order n and so G = (cv). Thus, is a primitive
of order £. nth root of unity if and only if G — (u>) if and only if o(cj) = n.

Theorem 24.3.3 Let n be any positive integer and K be a field.

24.3 Roots of Unity and Cyclotomic Polynomials
(i) There exists a finite field extension F/K such thatF contains a primitive
In Gauss’s epoch-making work Disquistiones Arithmeticae, Gauss showed that nth root of unity if and only if the characteristic of K does not divide n. (Zero
the cyclotomic equation xn — 1 = 0 is solvable for every n in the sense that is not a divisor of n.)
the solutions are expressible in terms of radicals. He not only gave a method (ii) Suppose the characteristic of K does not divide n. Let co be a primitive
for finding these expressions, but also determined the values of n for which the nth root of unity over K. Then K(cF) is the splitting field of f(x) = xn —
solutions are expressible in quadratic radicals and in so doing he determined 1 6 A’fz], f(x) has n distinct roots in K(cFfi and the roots of f(x) form a
the values of n for which it is possible to construct a regular n-gon by means multiplicative cyclic group H such that H is generated by any primitive nth
of ruler and compass. root of unity in K(uf).

Definition 24.3.1 Let F be any field and. n be a positive integer. Let cv 6 F. Proof. (i) Suppose the characteristic of K does not divide n. Let f(x) =
Then cv is called an nth root of unity if wn = 1. cv is called a primitive nth xn — 1 G A?[z]. Then f'(x) = nx71-1 0. Hence, all roots of f(x) are simple by
root of unity if wn = 1 and co171 / 1 for all m, 1 < m < n. Theorem 22.1.4. Thus, f(x) has n distinct roots in some splitting field. Let F
be the splitting field of /(z) over K. Then F/K is a finite extension. Let H be
Let F be a field and n be a positive integer. Let cu € F be an nth root the set of all nth roots of unity in F. Then by Theorem 24.3.2, H is a cyclic
of unity. Suppose the characteristic of F is p > 0 and p\n. Then n = pkm for group of order n. Let H = (a>). Then cv € F and o(u>) = n. Therefore, cu is a
some positive integer k and m such that gcd(p, m) = 1. Thus, (u/m — l)p = primitive nth root of unity in F.
cjP 771 — 1 — — 1 = 0. Hence, u)m — 1 = 0 and so lu is also an mth root of
Conversely, let uj be a primitive nth root of unity in a finite field extension
F/K. Then 1, cj, cj2, ..., cj72-1 e F and these are all n distinct roots of f(x).
unity.
Since degy(z) = n, f(x) has at most n roots. Thus, all roots of f(x) are
simple. Hence, f'(x) = nrn_1 -=/=- 0. Consequently, the characteristic of K does
Theorem 24.3.2 Let K be a, field and n be a positive integer. Suppose the
characteristic of K does not divide n. Let G be the set of all nth roots of unity not divide n.
in K. Then G is a. cyclic group and |G| divides n. If xn — 1 splits into linear (ii) By (i), there exists a finite field extension F/K such that F contains
factors in 7<[z], then |G| = n. a primitive nth root of unity, say, uj. Since cv is a primitive nth root of unity,
l,u;,u>2,... ,ujn_1 are all distinct elements and are roots of /(z) = zn — 1 6
JC[z]. Thus, f(x) has n distinct roots in K(lS). Hence, A"(cu) is a splitting field
Proof. Since 1 € G, G 0 Let a,b € G. Then (ab^)n = an(d_1)n = 1.
of /(z). By Theorem 24.3.2, the roots of /(z) form a multiplicative cyclic group
Therefore, ab~x G G. Hence, G is a subgroup of the multiplicative group
H of order n. Since the multiplicative order of a primitive nth root of unity is
K* = AT\{0}. Since f(x) = xn — 1 6 K[x] has at most n roots in AT, G is
n, H is generated by any primitive nth root of unity. ■
finite. Thus, by Theorem 23.1.5, G is cyclic. Let F be the splitting field of
f(x) over K. Since the characteristic of K does not divide n, f'(x) = nx
nx71-1 0. Definition 24.3.4 Let n be a positive integer and K be a field whose charac­
Consequently, all roots of f(x) are simple by Theorem 22.1.4. Thus, f(x) has teristic does not divide n. Let {coi,cj2,... be the set of all primitive nth
n distinct roots in F. Let T be the set of all roots of f(x) in F. Clearly T is roots of unity in the splitting field F of xn — 1 over K. The polynomial
a group, G CT C F\{0}, G is a subgroup of T, and |T| = n. Since G is a
subgroup of T, |G| divides |T| = n. Suppose f mtoline|ii» factory in
.y-Aic A
24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 521 24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 522

is called the nth cyclotomic polynomial over K and F/K is called the nth (iii)
cyclotomic extension.
deg4>n(3:) = number of distinct primitive nth roots of unity
In the following theorem, we describe some important properties of cyclo­ = number of distinct elements of G of order n
tomic polynomials. = number of generators of G
= 0(n). ■
Theorem 24.3.5 Let n be a positive integer and. K be a field such that the We now examine cyclotomic polynomials over Q. Suppose that w is a com­
characteristic of K does not divide n. Let 4>n(x) be the nth cyclotomic poly­ plex root of unity. Then for some positive integer n, |u>|n = |cvn| = 1. Hence,
nomial over K. Then the following assertions hold. |cu| = 1 and so iv lies on the unit circle in the complex plane. Also, co must
(i) xn - 1 = nd|n, d>o$d(*)- be of the form e~z = cos + i sin for some integer fc, 0 < k < n. Thus,
(ii) If P is the prime subfield of K, then 4>n(x) E P[rr]. there are exactly n nth roots of unity. These roots of unity divide the unit
(Hi) deg4>n(;r) = circle into n equal arcs, from which we get the word “cyclotomy.”

Proof. (i) Let wbea primitive nth root of unity over K. Then K(w) is the Theorem 24.3.6 Let co € C be a primitive nth root of unity over Q. Let 4>n(x)
splitting field of xn — 1 € A?[x] and all nth roots of unity form a multiplicative be the nth cyclotomic polynomial over Q. Then the followinq assertions hold.
cyclic group G of order n. Let d be a positive integer such that d\n. Let Gd = (i) $n(z) e Z[x\.
{a G G | o(a) = d}. Then {Gd | d > 0 and d\n} forms a partition of G. Clearly (ii) $n(^) is irreducible over Q.
for any positive divisor d of n, G contains all dth roots of unity and Gd contains (Hi) [QH : Q] = </>(n).
all primitive dth roots of unity. Hence, H G(Q(«)/Q) -Un-

xn-i = ilgg^-^) Proof. (i) We prove the result by induction on n. If n = 1, then =

= rid|n, d>0 ELeGd (x “ x — 1 € Z[x]. Suppose the result is true for all positive integers Zc, 1 < k < n.
Hd|n, d>0 Then for all 1 < d < n, d|n, <&d(x) £ Z[x]. Hence,

f(z) = P <I>d(a;) € Z[x].

(ii) Now 4>n(x) = ELeGnC37 — tu)’ where Gn is as defined in (i). We prove
d|n, l<d<n
the result by induction on n. If n = 1, then 4>i(x) = x — 1 E P[x]. Suppose the
result is true for all positive integers k, 1 < k < n. Then for all 1 < d < n, d|n, By Theorem 24.3.5(i),
C P[z]. Hence,
-1= P $d(a:) = f(x^n(x) E Q[a;].
/(*) = J] £d(z) e Pfi].
d\n, d>0
d|n, l<d<n
Now xn — 1 G Z[x] and f(x) is monic. By the division algorithm, there exist
By (i), q(x'),r(x') € Z[x] C Q[x] such that
xn - 1 = P $d(x) = /(x)$n(a:) G K[a:].
xn - 1 = q(x)f(x) + r(x),
d\n, d>0

Now xn — 1 € P[x] and f(x) is monic. By the division algorithm, there exist where either r(x) = 0 or degr(z) < deg/(x). Hence, by the uniqueness of
g(z),r(z) 6 P[x] C such that quotients and remainder in Q[x], r(x) = 0 and ^(x) = q(x) G Z[x].
(ii) By Lemma 16.2.8, it is sufficient to show that $n(^) is irreducible over
xn -1 = q(x)f(x) + r(x), Z. Suppose f(x) e Z[x] is an irreducible factor of 4>n(z). Let 4>n(jr) = f^h^x)
for some h(x) G Z[x]. Since 4>n(x) is monic, both J(x) and hfx) can be taken
where either r(x) = 0 or degr(z) < deg/(z). Hence, by the uniqueness of to be monic. Let co be a root of f(x). Then oj is also a root of ^^(rr) and
quotients and remainder in Kfo:], r(x) = 0 and = <?(#) € P[z]. _ e hence w is a primitive nth root of uni tv. Let pie a prime such that pipes
AuriTtc- 7fc<r£/L<r##£<z^x<r«z.Z rhy-A-LcS.
24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 523 24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 524

not divide n. Then gcd (p,n) = 1. Hence, cjp is also a generator of G, where G by \P([d]) = ad. Then is one-one function from Un onto G(Q(u>)/Q). Let
is the multiplicative cyclic group of all nth roots of unity. Thus, cup is also a [c], [d] G Un. Then cd = qn + r for some integers q and r, 0 < r < n. Then
primitive nth root of unity. We now claim that cjp is also a root of f(x). [cd] = [r] and (7cd(w) — — cjqn+r = u>r = <Tr(u>). Therefore, crC6/ = crr. Thus,
Suppose ljp is not a root of f{x). Since is a root of 4>n(z), wp is a root ^([c][d]) = = ^(H) = = ^([c]) oT([d]). Hence, is
of h(x). Therefore, cu is a root of h(xp}. Since f(x) is irreducible over Z and a homomorphism. Consequently,
hence over Q and co is a root of f(x), f(x)\h(xp) by Corollary 21.1.9. Hence,
h(xp) = f(x)g(x) for some g(x) G Q[x]. Since f(x), h(xp) G Z[x], we can G(QM/Q) ~ Un. ■
conclude that g(x) G Z[x] by using the division algorithm (as in (i)). For
Corollary 24.3.7 Let n be a positive integer. Then for every positive divisor
t(x) G Z[x], let t(x) be the corresponding polynomial in Zp[x], i.e., if a G Z is
m of n,
a coefficient of t(z), then [a] G Zp is a corresponding coefficient of t(z). Since
the characteristic of Zp is p, h(xp) = (h(xf)p. Thus,

(W = h(xp) = f(x) g(x). Proof. By Theorem 24.3.5,

Hence, f(x) and h(x) have a common irreducible factor. Now
-1 = n d\n, d>Q
MzL
= /(*)
where &d(x) is the dth cyclotomic polynomial over Q. Let m be a positive
and 4?n(z)|(zn — 1). Therefore, xn — [1] G Zp[x] has a multiple root. Let a be divisor of n. Then
a multiple root of t(x) = xn — [1]. Then t'(a) = nan_1 = 0. Since p does not
divide n, [n]an_1 = 0 implies that an_1 = [0] and so a = [0]. But [0] is not
xn-i = nd|„,d>0^dW
Hd|n, d>m ’ Us|m, s>0 (*r)
a root of xn — [1], which gives the desired contradiction. Thus, cjp is also a
= (sm-i)nd|n,d>ra<M*)-
root of f(x). By induction, we can show that cup is also a root for any positive
integer r. By induction, we can also show that u>pi "'PsS is also a root of /(#), Hence,
where the p^s are distinct primes such that pt does not divide n and the are
positive integers. From this, it follows that for all k, 1 < k < n, gcd(&,n) = 1, n
d\nt d>m
m-).
<jjk is a root of f(x). Since
By Theorem 24.3.6, G Z[x] for every positive integer d. Thus,
| 1 < k < n, gcd(A:,n) = 1}

is the set of all primitive nth roots of unity, every primitive nth root of unity = II
d\n, d>m
is a root of f(x). Hence, — f(x) an<^ so ^n(^) Is irreducible over Z.
(iii) Clearly Q(u>)/Q is a finite normal separable extension. Thus, by Corol­ Corollary 24.3.8 Let n be a positive integer. Then for every proper posi­
lary 24.2.12 and Theorem 24.3.5, tive divisor m of n, 4>n(x) divides , where 4>n(a;) is the nth cyclotomic
polynomial over Q.
|G(QM/Q)| = [QM : Q] =
Proof. As in the proof of Corollary 24.3.7,
(iv) Now for any a G G(Q(cu)/Q), ct(cj) is a primitive nth root of unity.
Hence, cr(cv) = for some d, 1 < d < n, and gcd(d,n) = 1. Also, a is
determined if is determined. We denote this a by <7^. It can be easily = n
d|n, d>m
verified that if c, d are integers such that 1 < c,d < n, gcd(c, n) = 1, and
gcd(d, n) = 1, then crcd = crc o ad. Define Hence,

n
24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 525 24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 526

Thus, £n(z) divides ■ Solution: By Theorem 24.3.5,

x8 — 1 = 4>i(a?)4>2(a;)$4(rr)4>8(x).
We now remove the assumption of commutativity in Theorem 10.1.23 as
promised.
Thus,
$8r = ("8 -
Theorem 24.3.9 (Wedderburn) A nontrivial finite ring D without zero di­
visors is a field. $1(2:) 4*2 (a:) ^4(^)
Now = x — 1, 4>2(z) = x + 1 and $4(2:) = x2 + 1. Hence,
Proof. We have already seen in Corollary 10.1.24 that a finite integral
(z8 -1)
domain is a field. Hence, it suffices to prove that D is a commutative ring. ^s(^) = = x4 + 1.
Since D is finite, D has prime characteristic p and contains Zp. Set F = {a | (x — l)(x + l)(z2 + 1)
a G D, ad = da for all d G D}. Now 0,1 G F so that F / 0. Let a, b G F. Then
0 Exercise 2 Let n be a positive integer and co be a primitive nth root of
(a — b)d = ad — bd = da — db = d(a — b) for all d € F. Thus, a — b € F. For
unity over Q. Show that
b 0, (ab_1)d = a(b~1d) = a(db_1) = d(ab~1) for all d G F since from bd = db,
we can obtain db~l = b~ld by multiplying on the left and right by b-1. Hence,
ab-1 G F so that since F is clearly commutative, F is a field in D. Now D is
a vector space over F of finite dimension, say, n. Let q denote the number of
elements in F. Then D has qn elements and the multiplicative group G of D Solution: By Theorem 24.3.6, [Q(cu) : Q] — Now Q C Q(id 1) C
has qn — 1 elements. QW- Therefore,
Suppose n > 1. We shall obtain a contradiction. For any g E G, g F,
[Q(cv) : Q] = [QR : Q(W + -)][Q(cu + 1) : Q], (24.9)
we set Dg = {d | d G D,dg — gd}. Then as above Dg is a division ring and
clearly Dg D F. Since D is also a vector space over Dg, we have that Dg to tu
contains qd elements for some positive integer d, which must divide n. Thus, By Corollary 24.2.12, |G(QR/Q(w + J))| = [QR : Q(u> + 1)]. Now
the multiplicative group Gg of Dg has order qd — 1. Now Gg is the normalizer
of g in G and hence the number of conjugates of g in G is the index °f
G(QM/Q(W + -))CG(Q(W)/Q).
Gg in G. Decomposing G into conjugacy classes, we thus obtain tv
9"-i=(9-d+e^, Let a G O(Q(cv)/Q). Since cr(u>) is a primitive nth root of unity, cr(to) =
tud, where 1 < d < n and gcd(d, n) = 1. If d = 1, then er is the identity
automorphism. Suppose d / 1. Also, suppose a G G(Q(u>)/Q(u> + ^)). Then
where the sum is taken over a finite set of proper divisors dz of n. Let 4>n(a?) cr(cv + i) = ^ + i- Hence, tud + = ct(cj + L)= tv + 1. From this, it follows
be the nth cyclotomic polynomial over Q. By Corollary 24.3.8, 4>n(z) divides that ijjd —to = “ — i«e., tvd —to = u>d^~1. Thus, — 1) = . Since
• Also, by Corollary 24.3.7, Z[z]. Thus, 4>n(g) is an integer divid­
cud_1 — 1 7^ 0, cjd+1 = 1. Hence, n — d + 1 since o(w) = n. Thus, d = n — 1.
ing qn — 1 and all the ^d~_\ and so also dividing q — 1. But <E>n(g) = II(q “
Therefore, the only elements of <Sr(Q(cu)/Q) which fix each element of Q(oj + ^)
and so we obtain are the identity automorphism and the automorphism <r given by ct(lj) = cun_1.
iM?)!>?-! Consequently,
since \q — cjJ > q — 1 > 1 for all j and since q >2. But this is contrary to the 1
[QR : Q(o> + -)] = G(Q(W)/Q(W + i))
statement that 4>n(g) divides q — 1. Hence, n = 1 and so D = F. ■ = 2.
U to
tU

24.3.1 Worked-Out Exercises Now [Q(u>) : Q] = </>(n). Hence, from Eq. (24.9), it now follows that

0 Exercise 1 Let w be a primitive eighth root of unity over Q. Describe

4>8(z).
“Pufi-C- ~Pl4_y.Al.c-A.
24.3. ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS 527 24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 528

0 Exercise 3 Let K be a field of characteristic 0 and n be a positive integer. 9. Let m and n be relatively prime positive integers. Let cum and tvn be the
Let tv be a primitive nth root of unity in some field extension of K. Show primitive znth and nth roots of unity, respectively. Show that Q(cjm) PI
that Q(u>n) = Q
(i) K(u>)/K is a normal extension and
10. Let K be a field with characteristic not dividing n and F be the splitting
(ii) G{K(tv)/K) is commutative. field of xn — 1 over K. Prove that F contains exactly <^(n) primitive nth
roots of unity, where </> is the Euler (^-function.
Solution: (i) By Theorem 24.3.3, K(tv) is the splitting field of xn - 1 €
K[j:]. Hence, by Theorem 24.1.3, K(to)/K is a normal extension. 11. Let n be a positive integer, K be a field containing all nth roots of unity,
(ii) Since the characteristic of K is 0, K(w)/K is separable. Since K(tF)/K and 0 a 6 K. Let F be the splitting field of /(x) = xn — a E K[x] and
is also a normal extension, it follows that K{tv)/K is a Galois extension. Let b be a root of fix).
a, (3 E G(K(tv)/K). Now a(tF) and /3(cv) are roots of xn — 1. Thus, a(u>) = tvz
(i) Show that F = Kib).
and /3(cv) = up for some i and j. Clearly (o o (3)(tv) = (J3 o o)(u?). From this, it
follows that a o (3 = /3 o a. Therefore, G(K(tv)/K) is commutative. (ii) Show that the Galois group GiF/K) is commutative.

24.3.2 Exercises 24.4 Solvability of Polynomials by Radicals

1. Find the Galois group of f(x) = x2 — x + 1 over Q.
The reader is familiar with the quadratic formula, which says that the roots of
2. Show that the Galois groups of z4 —1 and x2 —z+1 over Q are isomorphic. the polynomial x2 + bx + c are

3. Let p be a prime and $p(z) be the pth cyclotomic polynomial over Q. -b ± Vb2 ~ 4c
Show that
2
4>p(x) = 1 + z +-- F zp_1.
The only restriction is that the field of which b and c are elements is not of
4. Let n be a positive prime. Show that 4>2n(z) = 4>n(~^), where 4>n(j?) is characteristic 2.
the nth cyclotomic polynomial over Q. By choosing cube roots correctly, the roots of the cubic polynomial z3 +
bx2 + ex + d are
5. Let n be a positive integer. Let p be a prime such that p does not divide
5 + t —
n. Show that
ws + w2t — |,
w2s + wt—^,

where 4>pn(x) and $n(x) are the pnth and nth cyclotomic polynomials where w 1 is a cube root of 1,
over Q, respectively.

6. Find a polynomial irreducible over GF(3) having a primitive eighth root s

of unity as one of its roots in GF(9). 1 _ vi;+

7. Let K be a field of characteristic 0. Let 0 7^ a 6 K and /(x) = xn — a, p =

where n is a positive integer. Let F/K be a field extension such that n _ 2b3 be , j
fix) splits over F. Show that F contains a primitive nth root of unity.
The field containing 6, c, d is not of characteristic 2 or 3.
8. Let m and n be relatively prime positive integers.
In a similar manner, there exists a formula for the roots of a quartic poly­
(i) Show that the splitting field of — 1 over Q is the same as the nomial. This formula is also given in terms of combinations of radicals of ra­
splitting field of (zm — l)(a?n — 1) over Q. tional functions of the coefficients. Abel showed that no such general formula
(ii) From (i), deduce that =^(m) can be given for the roots of fifth degree, or higher degree polynomials. This
24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 529 24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 530

does not mean that no such formula exists for certain polynomials of degree fields such that Ki = Ki-itrf), where ri is a root of xni — ai, ai G ECj-i, for
5 or larger. Evariste Galois determined exactly for which polynomials such a some positive integer ni (i = 1,2, ...,m). Then there exists a finite chain of
formula exists. Galois’s theory, polished by Emil Artin, is considered to be one fields
of the most profound and beautiful works in the history of mathematics. K = F0CF1C---CFm=E
Consider the cubic polynomial x3 + bx2 4- ex + d over a field K of charac­
such that Fi/K is a. norm,al radical extension, xni — ai splits over Fi, and,
teristic not equal to 2 or 3 and consider the chain of fields
Ki C Fi for all i, 1 <i < m.
K C K(u) C K{u, (~ + u) C K(u, j + u, C F,
Proof. Let Fq = K. Suppose we have constructed a chain of fields

where u = and F = K(u, yj yj~ 2 ~ u\w)- Then F contains K = Fo C Fx C - - • C Fi

the roots of the polynomial x3+bx2+cx+d. Also, ±u are roots of the polynomial such that Fj/K is a normal radical extension, xn> — aj splits over Fj, Kj C Fj
x2 — u2, yj~ is a root of x3 — (— | + u) , ~2 ~ u a ro°t of x3 — (—| — u), for all j, 1 < j < i. Let G = G(Fi/K) = {e = cri,a2,... ,0’s}- Now is a
and w is a root of x3 —1. That is, F contains the splitting field of x3+6x2+cx-|-d root of xni+1 — ai+i G Ki[x] C F^fx]. Hence, = a^+i G Fi. Consider the
over K and F is obtained by successive adjunction of roots of a polynomial of polynomial
the form xn — a. In this sense, we mean that x3 + bx2 + ex + d is solvable by
g(x) = (xni+1 - tTi(a,+i))(xni+1 - ^(ai+i)) ■ • • (zni+1 - ^(^i+i)) € Fjx].
radicals.
Now -(<7i(ai+i)+ 4-a5(ai+i)),
Definition 24.4.1 A finite field extension F/K is called an extension by
radicals (or radical extension) if there exists a finite chain of fields ((Ti(ai+i))(a2(ai+i)) + (cr1(ai+i))(tT3(ai+i)) + • • • + (cTs_i(ai+i))(a5(ai+i)), • • •,

K = K0CKlC-CKm = F (24.10) (—l)fc(ai(ai+i))(cr2(ai+i)) • • ■ (cr5(c^+i)) are the coefficients of g(x), each of

which is fixed under ai,... ,crs. Since K is the fixed field of G{Fi/Kfi g(x) e
such that Ki = Ki_\(rifi where ri is a root of xni — ai, ai G Ki_i, for some
F[x]. Let Fi+i be a splitting field of p(x) over Fi. Then by Worked-Out Ex­
positive integer Ui (z = 1,2, ... ,772). The polynomial f(x) G K[x] (or the equa­
ercise 3 (page 502), Fi+\/K is a normal extension. Consider the polynomial
tion f(x) = 0) is called solvable by radicals if its splitting field is contained
xni+i — <Ti(ai+i) G F$[x]. Let ci,C2,..., cni+1 be the roots of xni+1 — ai(ai+i).
in an extension by radicals of K.
Then c?i+1 G F^ 1 < j; < n«+i. Thus, we have a chain of fields
A chain of fields like that in (24.10) is called a root tower.
Fi C Fi(ci) C Fi(ci,c2) C ■ • • C Fi(c!,C2,... ,Cni+1) = Fix.
A question immediately comes to mind. If a polynomial is solvable by
radicals, is its splitting field automatically a radical extension? The answer Clearly Fn is a radical extension of Fi. Similarly, we can obtain a radical
to this question is “no.” Let /(x) = x3 — 4x + 2. Since deg/(x) = 3, /(x) is extension F^/Fa by adjoining the roots of the polynomial
solvable by radicals over Q. Now /(0) > 0 and /(l) < 0. Hence, the graph of
/(x) must cross the x-axis three times. Thus, /(x) has three real roots. Hence, (zn*+1 - <T2(a»+i)) e Fi[x] C Fii[z],
a splitting field F of /(x) over Q lies in R. We will not show it here, but F is
Continuing like this, we obtain a chain of fields
not a radical extension since [F : Q] is not a power of 2. The interested reader
may find the details worked out in Isaacs. FiCFilCFi2C..-CFi5 = Fi+1,
The following is immediate from the definition of an extension by radicals.
such that Fi j+i is a radical extension of Fa obtained by adjoining roots of the
Lemma 24.4.2 Let K C L C F be a chain of fields such that L/K and F/L polynomial (xni+1 — ot+i^+i)). By Lemma 24.4.2, F$+i is a radical extension
are radical extensions. Then F/K is a radical extension. ■ of Fi and hence of K. Since r^+i is a root of g(x), G F*+i, and hence
Ki+i = Ki(ri+-fi) C Ffiri+i) C Fi+i. Therefore, we have a chain of fields
Theorem 24.4.3 Let K be a field of characteristic 0 and F/K be an extension
by radicals. Let K = Kq C Ki C ■■■ = Fbe the chain of intermediate
24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 531 24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 532

such that Fj/K is a normal radical extension, xni — aj splits over Fj, Kj C Fj Proof. Let E be the splitting field of f(x) over K. Let F/K be a radical
for all J, 1 < j < i + 1- Proceeding as above we obtain a finite chain of fields extension with root tower

= Fo C Fx C • - • C Fm = F K = Ko C Ki C ■ • • C Km - F
such that Fi/K is a normal radical extension, xni — ai splits over F;, and such that Ki = LG-ifrJ, where is a root of xni — ai, ai E Ki-i for some
Ki £ Fi for all t, 1 < i < m. ■ positive integer (i — 1,2,..., m) and E C F. By Corollary 24.4.4, we may
assume that F/K is a normal extension. Let n = niU2 ■ • • nm.
The following corollary is immediate from Theorem 24.4.3 Suppose K contains all nth roots of unity. Then G(F/K) is solvable by
Theorem 24.4.5. Clearly E/K is a normal separable extension. Hence, by the
Corollary 24.4.4 Let K be a field of characteristic 0. Let F/K be an extension
fundamental theorem of Galois theory, G(F/E} is a normal subgroup and
by radicals. Let K = Ko C Ki C • • • C Km = F be the chain of intermediate
fields such that Kj — Ki-itrf), where ri is a root of xni — ai, E -Fi-i for G(E/K) ~ G(F/K) /G(F/E).
some positive integer n,i (z = 1,2,..., m). Then there exists a, root tower
Thus, G(E/K) is a homomorphic image of a solvable group. Hence, G(E/K}
K = FQCF1C--QFm = E
is solvable.
such that K C F C E and E/K is a norm,al extension. ■ Now suppose K does not contain all nth roots of unity. Let w be a primitive
nth root of unity over K. Let K' = K(w). Then K'/K is a normal extension
Theorem 24.4.5 Let K be a field of characteristic 0. Let F/K be a normal and K' contains all nth roots of unity and G(K'/K) is commutative by Worked-
radical extension with root tower Out Exercise 3 (page 527). Thus, G(K'/K) is solvable. Suppose co F. Let
F' = F(lj). Then F'/F is a normal extension and F' is a splitting field of
K = K0CKlC.-.CKm = F xn — 1 E 2<[x] over F. Hence, by Worked-Out Exercise 3 (page 502), F'/K is
such that Ki = Ki_i(ri), where ri is a root of xni — ai, ai E Ki_i for some a normal extension. Clearly
ni (i = 1,2, ..., m). Let n = n^ni - • -nm. Suppose K contains all nth roots of
K = KoQ Ki C^-QKrn = FQF'
unity. Then G(F/K) is a, solvable group.
is a root tower and so F'/K is a radical extension. Also, E C F C Ff.
Proof. Now for all z, 1 < z < m, Ki contains all n?+ith roots of unity. Let Therefore, we may assume that w E F. Now F/K' is a normal extension since
1 = cui, tU2, ..., ajni+1 be the distinct n^+ith roots of unity. Then r$+i = ri+1u>i, F/K is a normal extension. Also,
7*^+1022, ..., ri+i(Wni+1 are the distinct ni+i roots of xni+1 — a$+i E Ki[x] and
clearly all these roots are in Ki+i = Ki(ri+1). Hence, Ki+i is the splitting field E' = ^CEjC...C^ = F
in F of xni+1 — ai+i over Ki. Thus, G(Ki+i/Ki) is a commutative group by
Exercise 11 (page 528). Let Gi = G(F/Ki). Then each Gi is a subgroup of Go is a root tower such that K[ = ■^-i(t’i), where ri is a root of xni — ai, ai E
and we have the chain of subgroups A’i-i C for some n* (i = 1,2, ..., m). Consequently, by Theorem 24.4.5,
G(F/K'} is solvable. By the fundamental theorem of Galois theory,

G(K'/K) - G^F/K^/G^F/K').
By the fundamental theorem of Galois theory,
Hence, G(F/K) is solvable. As in the previous case, GfiE/K) is solvable. ■
G(Ki+1/Ki) ~ G(F/Ki)/G(F/Ki+1) = Gi/Gi+1.

Thus, Gi/Gi+i is a commutative group. Hence, Go = G(F/K) is solvable. ■ To obtain the result of Abel that the general polynomial of degree n > 5
is not solvable by radicals, it suffices to find a polynomial of degree n whose
Theorem 24.4.6 Let K be afield of characteristic 0 and f(x) be a polynomial Galois group is Sn because Sn is not solvable for n > 5.
in JC[x]. If f(x) is solvable by radicals, then the Galois group of f(x) over K We proceed to find such a polynomial. Consider the polynomial ring F[xi,
is solvable. ..., xn] and its field of quotients F(xi, xn). Let Sn be the symmetric gwup
24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 533 24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 534

acting on {1,2,..., n}. We can consider Sn as a group of permutations acting [F(xi,..., xn) : F(ai,..., an)] is both greater than or equal to nl and less than
on F(xi,... ,xn) in the following manner: For a G Sn and a rational function or equal to n! Hence, we have
/(xi,..., xn) G F(xi,..., xn), define the mapping
[F(xi,...,xn) : F(a1}..., an)] = nl
(24.11)
and K = F(ai, ..., an), proving (i) and (ii). By Theorem 24.2.13,
We will call this mapping a. By Exercise 3, a is an automorphism of
F(xi,... ,xn). The fixed field of F(xi,..., xn) with respect to Sn is the field |G(F(x1,..., xn)/F)| = n!
K, where
and since Sn Q G(F(xi,... ,xn)/K), we have Sn = G(F(x\,... ,xn)/K}, prov­
K = {/(xi,...,xn) | /(xi,...,x„) e F(xi,...,xn), ing (iii). ■
f (*^1 > • • • 5 *^n) — f (*£q(1) j • • • > *^a(n)) for ^n}- •
We have now established our goal. The Galois group of the polynomial p(t)
The elements of K are called the symmetric rational functions. Set over F(ai,..., an) is Sn and Sn is not solvable for n > 5. Hence, p(t) is not
G-l — X] + * • • ~F Xn =
solvable by radicals for n > 5.
0-2 —
Theorem 24.4.8 Let G be a subgroup of Sp, where p is a prime. If G contains
a3 — ^2i<j<kxixjxk (24.12)
a p-cycle and a, transposition, then G = Sp.

- X^X“2 ‘ * ■ X^i Proof. If p = 2, then |SP| = 2 and the result is immediate. Suppose p = 3.
Let (a b) and (x y z) G G, where {a, 6} C {x,y,z}. Then it is easy to show
These functions are known as the elementary symmetric functions and
that
they are symmetric functions. Note that for n = 2, x± and X2 are roots of the
G = {e, (a 5), (x y z), (x z y), (a b) o (x y z), (a b) o (x z yf}.
polynomial t2— ayt+az') for n = 3, x\, X2, and X3 are roots of t3 —ait2+a2^ — 03;
and when n = 4, Xi, X2, X3, and X4 are roots of t4 — ait3 + ayt? — a^t + a$. Suppose p — 5. Let a = (a b) and /3 = (x y z uv), where {a, b} C {x, y, z, u, v}.
Since ai, ..., an G K, F(ai, ..., an) C K. Then there exists a positive integer n such that (3n = (a b c d e), where
{a,b,c,d,e} = {x,y,z,u,v}. It is easily verified that
Theorem 24.4.7 Using the above notation, we have
(i) [F(xb...,xn) : K] = n\, /3n o ao /3 n = (be)
(ii) K = F(ai,... ,an), /?2n o a o (3~2n = (c d)
03noao /3~3n = [d e)
(Hi) Sn = G(F(xi,...,xn)/F).
Hence, (a b), (b c), (c d), (d e) G G. Thus,
Proof. Since Sn is a group of automorphisms of F(xj,... , xn) leaving K
fixed, Sn C G(F(xj,... ,xn)/K). Thus, by Theorem 24.2.6, (b c) o (a b)o (b c) = (a c) 6 G
(c d) o (a c)o (c d) = (a d) G G
[F(x1}..., xn) : K] > |G(F(t!, ..., xn)/K)| > |Sn| = n! (d, e) o (a d)o (d e) = (a e) G G
The polynomialp(t) = tn—aitn_1+a2tn_24 F(-l)nan over F(ai,...,an) (c d) o (b c)o (c d) = (b d) G G
has roots xi, ..., xn and factors over F(xi, ..., xn) into (t — xi) • • • (ft — xn). (d e) o (b d)o (d e) = (b e) 6 G
Thus, it follows that F(xi,..., xn) is the splitting field of p(t) over F(aj, ..., (d e) o (c d)o (d e) = (c e) G G.
an). Since p(t) is of degree n, Hence, G contains the above 10 transpositions. However, these are all the
[F(xi,...,xn) : F(ai,...,an)] < n! transpositions of S5 since (2) = 10. Since every permutation is a product of
disjoint cycles and every cycle is a product of transpositions, G contains all the
Thus, since permutations of {x,y,z,u,v}. Hence, G = S5. (We ask the reader to consider
the theorem for arbitrary p.) ■
24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 535 24.4. SOLVABILITY OF POLYNOMIALS BY RADICALS 536

Theorem 24.4.9 Let f(x) be an irreducible polynomial in Q[.t]. Suppose that 2. In -F[zi, xz, ■ ■ ■, xn], xi, xz,...,xn are roots of
deg f(x) = p, where p is a prime. If f(x) has exactly p — 2 real roots and two
complex roots, then the Galois group of ffx) over Q is Sp. p(x) = xn — aixn~1 + a2Xn~2 +-- I- (—l)nan,

where the a^s are defined on page 533. Demonstrate this result for n = 2
Proof. Let S be a splitting field of f(x) over Q such that Q CS C C. Let and n = 3.
G denote the Galois group of S/Q. Now p\[S : Q] and [S : Q] = |G|. We see by
viewing G as a group of permutations on the roots {rj, r2, ..., rp} that G must 3. Prove that a, given on page 533, is an automorphism of F(zi, £2, .. -, xn)
contain an element of order p, which is necessarily a p-cycle. Let r\ — a + bi and that a fixes F(a-[,az,..., an).
and r% = a — bi. Then the automorphism a of C, which maps every complex
4. It can be shown that a symmetric polynomial is a polynomial in the
number to its conjugate must map S onto S since a is the identity on R and
o(ri) = rz, a(rz) = ri- Hence, we see that a2 is the identity and so is a trans­ elementary symmetric functions in xi,X2,...,xn. Express the following
as polynomials in the elementary symmetric functions in zi,Z2, ^3-
position. By the previous theorem, G = Sp. ■
(i) + x%+ x$,
Although Galois and Abel are most noted for their work involving the (ii) (zi - z2)20i - Z3)2(>2 - ^3)2.
existence of formulas for finding the roots of polynomials, their approach to
solving mathematical problems along with that of British algebraists marks the 5. Show that for every finite group G, there is a field K and a polynomial
birth of modern algebra. Their work resulted in abstract and widely inclusive f(x) € F[x] such that the Galois group of f(x) over K is isomorphic to
theories. Actually, Lagrange’s work on algebraic equations and especially on G.
analytic mechanics anticipated the awakening of the strength of the abstract 6. Find the Galois group of the polynomial z3 — 3x + 1 over Q. Solve the
and general approach. It was Hilbert’s work on the foundations of geometry equation x3 — 3a? + 1 = 0 by radicals.
(1899) which finalized the abstract approach.
7. Show that the Galois group of the polynomial f(x) = x5 ~ 10x4 + 2rr3 —
24z2 4- 2 over Q is S5. Is the equation f(x) — 0 solvable by radicals?
24.4.1 Worked-Out Exercises

<0> Exercise 1 Show that the Galois group of the polynomial f{x) = 2x5 —
10z + 5 over Q is S$. Conclude that the equation /(x) = 0 is not solvable
by radicals.

Solution: We have that f(x) is irreducible over Q by Eisenstein’s criterion.

Now
fix') = 10(z4 - 1).

Hence, f(x) has two real roots, namely, 1 and —1. Since /(—l) > 0 and
/(l) < 0, it follows that f(x) has three real roots, say, ri,r2>^3 such that
ri < — 1 < T2 < 1 < 7*3. The other two roots of f(x) are complex numbers.
Thus, from Theorem 24.4.9, the Galois group of f(x) is S$. Hence, by Theorem
24.4.6, the equation f(x) = 0 is not solvable by radicals.

24.4.2 Exercises

1. Find the roots of the polynomial 2z3 + 9z + 6 by using the formula for
the root of a cubic. _ . __