Operations of Functions

Function operations are the arithmetic operations that are used to solve a function. The arithmetic
operations applied to a function are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Function operations are the arithmetic rules we can apply to two or more functions. Functions can
be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided against each other, and we can divide function
operations into four types.

1. Addition of the functions

2. Subtractions of the functions
3. Multiplication of the functions
4. Division of the functions
Addition of the Functions
The addition of functions involves combining two or more functions to create a new function. It is done
by adding the corresponding values of the functions at each input.
Suppose we have two functions f(x) and g(x). The sum of these functions, denoted as (f + g)(x), is defined
as:
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
In other words, to find the value of the sum function at a particular input x, we add the values of f(x) and
g(x) at that input.
Here's an example to illustrate the addition of functions:
Let's consider two functions:
f(x) = 2x + 3 g(x) = x^2 - 1
To find the sum of these functions, we add the values of f(x) and g(x) at each input x.
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) = (2x + 3) + (x^2 - 1)
We can simplify this sum function by combining like terms:
(f + g)(x) = x^2 + 2x + 3 - 1 = x^2 + 2x + 2
So, the sum of the functions f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x^2 - 1 is (f + g)(x) = x^2 + 2x + 2.
It's important to note that the addition of functions is commutative, which means that the order of
addition does not matter. In other words, (f + g)(x) is the same as (g + f)(x).

Subtraction of Functions
The subtraction of functions involves subtracting one function from another to create a new function. It
is done by subtracting the corresponding values of the functions at each input.
Suppose we have two functions f(x) and g(x). The difference of these functions, denoted as (f - g)(x), is
defined as:
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
In other words, to find the value of the difference function at a particular input x, we subtract the value
of g(x) from the value of f(x) at that input.
Here's an example to illustrate the subtraction of functions:
Let's consider two functions:
f(x) = 2x + 3 g(x) = x^2 - 1
To find the difference of these functions, we subtract the value of g(x) from the value of f(x) at each input
x.
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x) = (2x + 3) - (x^2 - 1)
We can simplify this difference function by combining like terms:
(f - g)(x) = 2x + 3 - x^2 + 1 = -x^2 + 2x + 4
So, the difference of the functions f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x^2 - 1 is (f - g)(x) = -x^2 + 2x + 4.
Similarly to addition, it's important to note that the subtraction of functions is not commutative. In other
words, (f - g)(x) is generally not the same as (g - f)(x). The order in which the functions are subtracted
affects the result.

Multiplication of Functions

Multiplication of the Functions

Let us consider an example of function operations multiplication: Let's consider the multiplication of two
functions, f(x) and g(x), and I'll provide an example.
Let's say we have the following functions: f(x) = 2x + 3 g(x) = x^2
To find the product of these functions, we can multiply them together:
h(x) = f(x) * g(x) = (2x + 3) * (x^2)
To simplify this, we can use the distributive property of multiplication over addition:
h(x) = 2x * x^2 + 2x * 3 + 3 * x^2 + 3 * 3
Now, let's simplify each term:
h(x) = 2x^3 + 6x + 3x^2 + 9
Therefore, the product of f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x^2 is h(x) = 2x^3 + 3x^2 + 6x + 9.
This is an example of how to multiply two functions together. You can follow a similar process for other
pairs of functions

Division of Functions
The division of functions refers to the mathematical operation of dividing one function by another. It
involves finding a quotient function and, in some cases, a remainder function.
Given two functions, f(x) and g(x), the division of f(x) by g(x) is denoted as f(x) / g(x).
Let's consider the division of two functions, f(x) and g(x), and I'll provide an example.
Example 1: Let's say we have the following functions: f(x) = 2x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 3 g(x) = x^2 - 2x + 1
To find the quotient of these functions, we can divide f(x) by g(x):
quotient(x) = f(x) / g(x) = (2x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 3) / (x^2 - 2x + 1)
To divide the polynomials, we can use polynomial long division. Here are the steps:
x^2 - 2x + 1 | 2x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 3 - (2x^3 - 4x^2 + 2x) _________________________ -x + 3 - (-x + 2)
_________________________ 1
The quotient is 2x - 4 and the remainder is 1.
Therefore, the division of f(x) = 2x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 3 by g(x) = x^2 - 2x + 1 is quotient(x) = 2x - 4 with a
remainder of 1.
Rational Equation
Any equation with one or more rational expressions is referred to as rational. A fraction with polynomials
in the numerator and denominator is referred to as a rational expression. Finding the values of the
variable that make the equation true is the aim of solving a rational equation.

The steps below should be used to answer a rational equation:

Any limitations on the variable should be noted. Since division is a necessary step in rational expressions,
we must ensure that the denominators are not equal to zero. The variable must not have any values in
the solution set if doing so will result in the denominators being zero.
For all the rational expressions in the equation, determine a common denominator. To get a common
result, each rational statement is multiplied by the relevant factors.

By carrying out the required operations to remove the denominators, simplify the equation. Remove
fractions by multiplying by the common denominator.
The resulting equation should be solved similarly to a typical algebraic equation. This could entail
factoring, combining similar phrases, or shifting variables to one side.
Put your solution(s) back into the original equation to make sure they work. Verify the equation is
accurate and that the denominators are not zero.

It's important to note that rational equations may have extraneous solutions, which are values that
satisfy the equation but do not satisfy the original problem. Therefore, it's always a good practice to
check the solutions obtained.
Here's an example of solving a rational equation:
Example: Solve the equation (x + 3)/(x - 2) = 2/(x + 1).
Solution: Step 1: There are no restrictions on the variable in this equation.
Step 2: The common denominator is (x - 2)(x + 1). Multiply each fraction by the necessary factors: (x +
3)/(x - 2) * (x + 1)/(x + 1) = 2/(x + 1) * (x - 2)/(x - 2) (x + 3)(x + 1) = 2(x - 2)
Step 3: Simplify the equation: x^2 + 4x + 3 = 2x - 4
Step 4: Solve the resulting equation: x^2 + 4x + 3 - 2x + 4 = 0 x^2 + 2x + 7 = 0
This equation does not factor nicely, so we can use the quadratic formula to find the solutions: x = (-2 ±
√(2^2 - 4(1)(7))) / (2(1)) x = (-2 ± √(-24)) / 2 x = (-2 ± 2i√6) / 2 x = -1 ± i√6
So the solutions are x = -1 + i√6 and x = -1 - i√6.
Step 5: Check the solutions: Substitute each solution back into the original equation: For x = -1 + i√6: (x +
3)/(x - 2) = (1 + i√6 + 3)/(1 + i√6 - 2) On simplifying, we find that the equation holds true. Similarly, we
can check x = -1 - i√6.
Therefore, the solution to the original equation is x = -1 + i√6 and x = -1 - i√6.

Rational Inequality
A rational inequality is an inequality that involves rational functions. A rational function is a function that
can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials.
To solve a rational inequality, you typically follow these steps:
Simplify the rational expression if possible.
Determine the critical points by setting the numerator and denominator equal to zero and solving for the
variable.
Use the critical points to create test intervals on a number line.
Choose a test point from each interval and evaluate the rational expression.
Determine the sign of the expression in each interval.
Use the signs to write the solution to the inequality.

Here's an example to illustrate the process:

Solve the rational inequality: (x - 2)/(x + 3) > 0
Simplify the rational expression: The expression is already simplified.
Determine the critical points: Set the numerator equal to zero: x - 2 = 0 -> x = 2 Set the denominator
equal to zero: x + 3 = 0 -> x = -3 So, the critical points are x = -3 and x = 2.
Create test intervals: On a number line, mark the critical points -3 and 2. This divides the number line
into three intervals: (-∞, -3), (-3, 2), and (2, +∞).
Choose test points: Select a test point from each interval. Let's choose -4 from (-∞, -3), 0 from (-3, 2),
and 3 from (2, +∞).
Evaluate the expression: Plug in the test points into the inequality: For x = -4: (-4 - 2)/(-4 + 3) = -6 < 0 For
x = 0: (0 - 2)/(0 + 3) = -2/3 < 0 For x = 3: (3 - 2)/(3 + 3) = 1/6 > 0
Determine the sign: Based on the evaluations, the signs are: (-∞, -3): Negative (-3, 2): Negative (2, +∞):
Positive
Write the solution: Since the inequality is greater than 0, the solution is where the expression is positive.
From the sign analysis, we find that the solution is (2, +∞).
Therefore, the solution to the inequality (x - 2)/(x + 3) > 0 is x > 2.

Rational Function
A rational function is a function that can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials. It has the form:
f(x) = P(x) / Q(x)
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, and Q(x) is not equal to zero. The variable x represents the
independent variable, and f(x) represents the dependent variable or the output of the function.
Rational functions can have various properties and behaviors. Here are some key points about rational
functions:
Domain: The domain of a rational function consists of all real numbers except for the values of x that
make the denominator Q(x) equal to zero. These values are called the excluded values.
Vertical Asymptotes: If the degree of the polynomial Q(x) is greater than the degree of P(x) by one or
more, the rational function may have vertical asymptotes. Vertical asymptotes occur at values of x for
which the denominator Q(x) is equal to zero.
Horizontal or Oblique Asymptotes: Rational functions may also have horizontal or oblique asymptotes.
These asymptotes describe the behavior of the function as x approaches positive or negative infinity. The
presence and nature of these asymptotes depend on the degrees of the polynomials P(x) and Q(x).
Zeros and Intercepts: Zeros of a rational function occur when the numerator P(x) is equal to zero. These
are the values of x for which the function f(x) equals zero. Intercepts can also occur if the numerator or
denominator evaluates to zero at a particular value of x.
Graphical Behavior: Rational functions can exhibit various graphical behaviors, such as vertical stretches
or compressions, reflections, and translations. The shape and location of the graph depend on the
coefficients and exponents of the polynomials P(x) and Q(x).
Understanding the properties and behavior of rational functions can help in analyzing their graphs,
finding their domains and asymptotes, identifying zeros and intercepts, and solving related equations or
inequalities.

Here's an example of a rational function:

f(x) = (3x^2 - 5x + 2) / (x - 1)
In this example, we have a rational function where the numerator is the polynomial 3x^2 - 5x + 2, and
the denominator is the polynomial x - 1.
Let's analyze some properties of this rational function:
Domain: The function is defined for all real numbers except x = 1, as it would make the denominator
equal to zero.
Vertical Asymptote: In this case, since the degree of the numerator is 2 and the degree of the
denominator is 1, there is no vertical asymptote.
Horizontal Asymptote: As x approaches positive or negative infinity, the function approaches the ratio of
the leading terms of the numerator and the denominator. In this case, the leading term of the numerator
is 3x^2, and the leading term of the denominator is x. Therefore, the horizontal asymptote is y = 3.
Zeros: The zeros of the function occur when the numerator equals zero. We can factor the numerator as
(3x - 2)(x - 1) = 0. Therefore, the zeros are x = 2/3 and x = 1.
Intercepts: To find the y-intercept, we evaluate the function when x = 0: f(0) = (3(0)^2 - 5(0) + 2) / (0 - 1)
= 2 / (-1) = -2. So, the y-intercept is (0, -2).
Now, armed with this information, you can plot the graph of the rational function f(x) = (3x^2 - 5x + 2) /
(x - 1) and analyse its behaviour based on the properties discussed above.

Logarithmic Equation

A logarithmic equation is an equation that involves logarithmic functions. Logarithmic functions are the
inverse of exponential functions and are written in the form:
y = log(base a)(x)
where "a" is the base of the logarithm, "x" is the argument of the logarithm, and "y" is the value of the
logarithmic function.
To solve a logarithmic equation, you typically follow these steps:
Identify the properties of the logarithmic equation, such as the base of the logarithm and any
restrictions on the domain.
Use logarithmic properties, such as the power rule or the logarithmic identity, to simplify the equation if
possible.
Apply the inverse operation of the logarithm, which is exponentiation, to eliminate the logarithm and
solve for the variable.
Check for extraneous solutions by verifying that the obtained solutions satisfy the original equation and
are within the domain of the logarithmic function.
Here's an example to illustrate the process:
Solve the logarithmic equation: log(base 2)(x + 3) = 4
The base of the logarithm is 2, and there are no restrictions on the domain.
To simplify the equation, we can rewrite it in exponential form: 2^4 = x + 3.
Solve for x by subtracting 3 from both sides: 16 - 3 = x -> x = 13.
Check the solution: Substitute x = 13 back into the original equation to ensure it satisfies the equation.
log(base 2)(13 + 3) = 4 log(base 2)(16) = 4 2^4 = 16
The solution x = 13 satisfies the original equation.
Therefore, the solution to the logarithmic equation log(base 2)(x + 3) = 4 is x = 13.
Remember to always check your solution to eliminate any potential extraneous solutions.
Example of Logarithmic Equation
Example 1: Solve the logarithmic equation.

Since we want to transform the left side into a single logarithmic equation, we should use the Product
Rule in reverse to condense it. Here is the rule, just in case you forgot.

Given

Apply Product Rule from Log Rules.

Distribute: (x+2)(3)=3x+6(x+2)(3)=3x+6

Drop the logs, set the arguments (stuff inside the parenthesis) equal to each other.

Then solve the linear equation. I know you got this part down!

Just a big caution. ALWAYS check your solved values with the original logarithmic equation.
Remember:
It is OKAY for xx to be 00 or negative.
However, it is NOT ALLOWED to have a logarithm of a negative number or a logarithm of zero, 00, when
substituted or evaluated into the original logarithm equation.
CAUTION: The logarithm of a negative number, and the logarithm of zero are both not defined.
Log (negativenumber)=undefined
log⁡b(0)=undefinedlogb(0)=undefined
Let’s check our answer to see if x=7x=7 is a valid solution. Substitute it back into the original logarithmic
equation and verify if it yields a true statement.

Since x=7x=7 checks, we have a solution at x=7x=7.

Simple and Compound Interest

Simple interest and compound interest are two methods used to calculate the interest on a principal
amount over a certain period of time. They differ in how the interest is calculated and accumulated.
Simple Interest: Simple interest is calculated only on the initial principal amount. It does not take into
account any interest that has already been earned. The formula for simple interest is:
I=P*r*t
where: I is the interest P is the principal amount (initial amount of money) r is the interest rate per
period (usually expressed as a decimal) t is the time period (in years)
The interest is calculated by multiplying the principal amount by the interest rate and the time period.
The resulting interest is constant throughout the duration of the investment.
Compound Interest: Compound interest takes into account not only the initial principal amount but also
the accumulated interest over time. It involves reinvesting the interest earned, and thus, interest is
calculated on both the principal amount and the interest already earned.
The formula for compound interest is:
A = P * (1 + r/n)^(n*t)
where: A is the final amount including principal and interest P is the principal amount r is the annual
interest rate (as a decimal) n is the number of compounding periods per year t is the time period (in
years)
The compound interest formula incorporates the compounding frequency (n) to calculate the growth of
the investment. The interest is added to the principal amount at each compounding period, resulting in
exponential growth over time.
In summary, simple interest is calculated only on the initial principal amount, while compound interest
takes into account both the principal amount and the accumulated interest. Compound interest results
in higher returns compared to simple interest, especially for longer time periods and higher
compounding frequencies.
Probability Distribution

A probability distribution is a mathematical function that describes the likelihood of various outcomes
occurring in a particular event or experiment. It provides a way to assign probabilities to different
possible outcomes, allowing us to understand and analyze uncertain events.
There are two main types of probability distributions: discrete probability distributions and continuous
probability distributions.
Discrete Probability Distribution: A discrete probability distribution is used when the variable can only
take on specific values, typically integers. It associates each possible outcome with a probability. The
probabilities assigned to each outcome must satisfy two conditions: they must be non-negative, and
their sum must equal 1. Examples of discrete probability distributions include the binomial distribution,
the Poisson distribution, and the geometric distribution.
Continuous Probability Distribution: A continuous probability distribution is used when the variable can
take on any value within a certain range. It is described by a probability density function (PDF) rather
than assigning probabilities to individual outcomes. The area under the curve of the PDF represents the
probability of the variable falling within a specific range. Examples of continuous probability distributions
include the normal distribution, the exponential distribution, and the uniform distribution.
Probability distributions are essential tools in probability theory and statistics. They help us understand
the behavior of random variables and make predictions about the likelihood of specific outcomes. By
using probability distributions, we can calculate expected values, variances, and other statistical
measures that provide insights into the characteristics of random events.
It's important to note that different probability distributions are applicable in different situations,
depending on the nature of the variable being studied and the assumptions made about its behavior.
Selecting the appropriate probability distribution for a given problem is crucial for accurate analysis and
inference.

Example: Probability distributions are idealized frequency distributionsImagine that an egg farmer wants
to know the probability of an egg from her farm being a certain size.
The farmer weighs 100 random eggs and describes their frequency distribution using a histogram:

She can get a rough idea of the probability of different egg sizes directly from this frequency distribution.
For example, she can see that there’s a high probability of an egg being around 1.9 oz., and there’s a low
probability of an egg being bigger than 2.1 oz.
Suppose the farmer wants more precise probability estimates. One option is to improve her estimates by
weighing many more eggs.

A better option is to recognize that egg size appears to follow a common probability distribution called
a normal distribution. The farmer can make an idealized version of the egg weight distribution by
assuming the weights are normally distributed:

Since normal distributions are well understood by statisticians, the farmer can calculate precise
probability estimates, even with a relatively small sample size.
Variables that follow a probability distribution are called random variables. There’s special notation you
can use to say that a random variable follows a specific distribution:
Random variables are usually denoted by X.
The ~ (tilde) symbol means “follows the distribution.”
The distribution is denoted by a capital letter (usually the first letter of the distribution’s name), followed
by brackets that contain the distribution’s parameters.
For example, the following notation means “the random variable X follows a normal distribution with a
mean of µ and a variance of σ2.”

Normal Distribution and Areas Under the Normal Curve

The normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian distribution or bell curve, is a continuous
probability distribution that is widely used in statistics and probability theory. It is characterized by its
symmetric, bell-shaped curve. The shape of the normal distribution is determined by its mean (μ) and
standard deviation (σ).
The probability density function (PDF) of the normal distribution is given by the equation:
f(x) = (1 / (σ * √(2π))) * e^(-(x - μ)^2 / (2σ^2))
where:
x is the random variable
μ is the mean of the distribution
σ is the standard deviation of the distribution
π is the mathematical constant pi (approximately 3.14159)
e is the mathematical constant e (approximately 2.71828)
The normal distribution has several important properties:
Symmetry: The distribution is symmetric around its mean. This means that the mean, median, and mode
of the distribution are all equal and located at the center of the curve.
Empirical Rule: A large proportion of the data falls within a certain number of standard deviations from
the mean. Approximately 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% falls
within two standard deviations, and 99.7% falls within three standard deviations.
Z-Score: The z-score measures the number of standard deviations a particular value is from the mean. It
is calculated as z = (x - μ) / σ, where x is the observed value.
Central Limit Theorem: The sum or average of a large number of independent and identically distributed
random variables tends to follow a normal distribution, regardless of the distribution of the individual
variables.
Areas under the normal curve can be calculated to determine probabilities associated with specific
ranges of values. This is done by calculating the cumulative distribution function (CDF), which gives the
probability that a random variable is less than or equal to a specific value. The CDF for the normal
distribution does not have a closed-form formula but can be determined using statistical software or
standard normal distribution tables.
The standard normal distribution, also known as the Z-distribution, is a special case of the normal
distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. By using z-scores, we can convert values
from any normal distribution to the standard normal distribution and then use the standard normal
distribution table to find probabilities.
The normal distribution and its associated areas under the curve are widely used in statistical inference,
hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and modeling various natural and social phenomena

Measure of Location

A measure of location, also known as a measure of central tendency, is a statistical value that represents
the center or typical value of a data set. It provides a summary of the location or position of the data
points relative to each other. The most commonly used measures of location are the mean, median, and
mode.
Mean: The mean, also referred to as the average, is calculated by summing up all the data points and
dividing the sum by the total number of data points. It is influenced by extreme values and provides an
overall measure of the "center" of the data set. The formula for the mean is:
Mean = (sum of all data points) / (total number of data points)
Median: The median is the middle value of a sorted data set. To find the median, the data set is arranged
in ascending or descending order, and the value at the center is chosen. If the data set has an odd
number of observations, the median is the middle value. If the data set has an even number of
observations, the median is the average of the two middle values.
Mode: The mode is the value or values that occur most frequently in a data set. It represents the peak(s)
of the distribution and is particularly useful for categorical or discrete data. A data set can have one
mode (unimodal), two modes (bimodal), or more than two modes (multimodal). It is possible for a data
set to have no mode if no value is repeated.
These measures of location provide different perspectives on the center or typical value of a data set.
The mean is influenced by extreme values and is suitable for data sets with a symmetrical distribution,
while the median is resistant to outliers and is appropriate for skewed distributions. The mode is useful
for identifying the most frequently occurring value(s) in a data set.
Choosing the appropriate measure of location depends on the nature of the data set and the specific
objective of the analysis. Each measure has its strengths and limitations and should be selected
accordingly.

Permutation

Permutation refers to the arrangement of objects or elements in a specific order. In permutation, the
order of the elements matters. It is often denoted as "nPr" or "P(n, r)," where "n" represents the total
number of objects or elements, and "r" represents the number of objects or elements selected for
arrangement.
The formula to calculate the number of permutations is:
P(n, r) = n! / (n - r)!
where "!" denotes the factorial operation. The factorial of a number is the product of all positive integers
less than or equal to that number. For example, 4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24.
The permutation formula accounts for the arrangement of "r" elements from a total of "n" elements. It
divides the total number of arrangements (n!) by the number of arrangements of the remaining
elements ((n - r)!). This ensures that only the desired number of elements are arranged while
maintaining the order.
For example, let's say you have a set of 5 letters (A, B, C, D, E), and you want to find the number of
permutations of 3 letters taken at a time. Using the permutation formula:
P(5, 3) = 5! / (5 - 3)! = 5! / 2! = (5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1) / (2 x 1) = 60
So, there are 60 possible permutations of 3 letters chosen from a set of 5 letters.
Permutations are commonly used in combinatorial mathematics, probability theory, and various fields
where the arrangement or order of elements is significant, such as arranging a sequence of events or
selecting a committee from a group of individuals.

Combination

Combination refers to the selection of objects or elements from a set without considering the order. In
combination, the order of the elements does not matter. That means if the same elements are selected
but in a different order, it is considered the same combination. Combinations are denoted as "nCr" or
"C(n, r)," where "n" represents the total number of objects or elements, and "r" represents the number
of objects or elements selected for combination.
For example, if you have a set of 3 letters (A, B, C), the possible combinations of 2 letters taken at a time
are AB, AC, and BC. The order of the letters does not matter, so AB and BA are considered the same
combination.
The formula for combinations is:
C(n, r) = n! / (r! * (n - r)!)
The factorial notation "!" denotes the product of all positive integers less than or equal to the number.
For example, 4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24.
In summary, permutation deals with the arrangement of objects in a specific order, while combination
deals with the selection of objects without considering the order. Permutations involve the factorial
operation and result in more possibilities than combinations due to considering the order of elements.
Combinations, on the other hand, have fewer possibilities as they only consider the selection of
elements without regard to their order.

Quartiles
There are three quartiles denoted by Q1, Q2 and Q3 divides the frequency distribution in to four equal
parts

That is 25 percent of data will lie below Q1, 50 percent of data below Q2 and 75 percent below Q3.
Here Q2 is called the Median. Quartiles are obtained in almost the same way as median
Quartiles for Raw or Ungrouped data:
If the data set consist of n items and arranged in ascending order then

Example 5.30
Compute Q1 and Q3 for the data relating to the marks of 8 students in an examination given below 25,
48, 32, 52, 21, 64, 29, 57
Solution:
n=8
Arrange the values in ascending order
21, 25, 29, 32, 48, 52, 57, 64 we have
Decile

Decile is a statistical concept that divides a data set into ten equal parts, each containing an equal
proportion of the data. It is a measure of location that helps analyze the distribution of data and identify
specific points within the dataset.
To calculate deciles, follow these steps:
Arrange the data set in ascending order.
Calculate the index of each decile using the formula: Index = (10 / 100) * n where n is the total number
of data points in the dataset.
Round the index to the nearest whole number. This will give you the position of each decile within the
ordered dataset.
The values at the positions calculated in step 3 represent the deciles.
The first decile (D1) represents the value below which 10% of the data falls. The second decile (D2)
represents the value below which 20% of the data falls, and so on. The ninth decile (D9) represents the
value below which 90% of the data falls. Finally, the tenth decile (D10) represents the maximum value in
the dataset.
Deciles are useful in analyzing the spread and distribution of data. They can help identify outliers,
understand the distribution's shape, and compare specific data points with the rest of the dataset. For
example, the fifth decile (D5) is equivalent to the median of the dataset, dividing it into two equal halves.
In addition to deciles, quartiles (dividing the data into four equal parts) and percentiles (dividing the data
into hundred equal parts) are also commonly used measures of location that provide further insights
into the distribution of data.

Example 5.33
Find the D6 for the following data
11, 25, 20, 15, 24, 28, 19, 21

Solution:
Arrange in an ascending order
11,15,19,20,21,24,25,28

Example 5.34
Calculate D5 for the frequency distribution of monthly income of workers in a factory

Solution

Quartiles
There are three quartiles denoted by Q1, Q2 and Q3 divides the frequency distribution in to four equal
parts

That is 25 percent of data will lie below Q1, 50 percent of data below Q2 and 75 percent below Q3.
Here Q2 is called the Median. Quartiles are obtained in almost the same way as median
Quartiles for Raw or Ungrouped data:
If the data set consist of n items and arranged in ascending order then

Example 5.30
Compute Q1 and Q3 for the data relating to the marks of 8 students in an examination given below 25,
48, 32, 52, 21, 64, 29, 57
Solution:
n=8
Arrange the values in ascending order
21, 25, 29, 32, 48, 52, 57, 64 we have

Quartiles for Continuous series (grouped data)

Step 1: Find cumulative frequencies
Step 2 : Find (N/4)
Step 3 : Q1 class is the class interval corresponding to the value of the cumulative frequency just greater
than (N/4)
Step 4 : Q3 class is the class interval corresponding to the value of the cumulative frequency just greater
than 3 (N/4)
Percentiles
The percentile values divide the frequency distribution into 100 parts each containing 1 percent of the
cases. It is clear from the definition of quartiles, deciles and percentiles
Relationship
P25 = Q1
P50 = Median = Q2
P75 = 3rd quartile = Q3
Example 5.35
The following is the monthly income (in 1000) of 8 persons working in a factory. Find P30 income value
10,14, 36, 25, 15, 21, 29, 17
Solutions:
Arrange the data in an ascending order.
n=8
10,14,15,17,21,25,29,36

Example 5.36
Calculate P61 for the following data relating to the height of the plants in a garden
Solution: