THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCRETE

Made from a combination of cement, water, aggregates (such sand or gravel), and sometimes other additives
called admixtures, concrete is a versatile building material. Over the course of millennia, its evolution has changed,
with early civilizations—such as ancient Egypt and Rome—using concretes based on lime. However, the discovery
of Portland cement, a crucial component of concrete that holds the other components together, in the 18th and
19th centuries marked the beginning of the development of modern concrete as we know it today.

Concrete's invention was prompted by the demand for long-lasting, adaptable, and reasonably priced building
materials. Concrete compositions have been improved by advancements in chemistry, engineering, and material
science, resulting in increased workability, durability, and strength. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
reinforced concrete—which uses steel reinforcement to increase its tensile strength—further transformed the
building sector.

Concrete is utilized in many different applications nowadays, ranging from straightforward sidewalks and
foundations to intricate architectural constructions and infrastructure projects like bridges and dams. With an
emphasis on increasing performance, lowering environmental impact, and improving sustainability through
innovations like high-performance, self-healing, and ultra-high-performance concrete, ongoing research and
development is pushing the boundaries of concrete technology.

THE HISTORY OF CONCRETE

The history of concrete is extensive, dating back thousands of years. Its roots may be seen in the construction
endeavors of ancient civilizations including the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, who employed a variety of
materials that resembled concrete.

Lime-based mortars were used by ancient immigrants in Syria and Jordan to plaster their dwellings and build basic
structures, which is one of the first documented applications of materials that resemble concrete, dating back to
around 6500 BCE.

Since then, concrete's strength, durability, adaptability, and comparatively low cost have made it one of the most
commonly used building materials in the world. Concrete is employed in a wide range of construction projects
these days, from roads, bridges, and buildings to dams, tunnels, and even architectural ornamentation. Concrete
technology is constantly improving in terms of performance, sustainability, and environmental effect.

WHO FIRST INVENTED CONCRETE?

 The Egyptians
 - In the year 3000 BC, the Egyptians employed crude kinds of concrete. This ancient civilization bound
bricks together with a mixture of straw and mud. The Great Pyramids, which employed gypsum and
lime to make mortar, provide another proof of the Egyptians' inventive approach to cohesiveness.

 The Romans
- More than 2000 years after the Romans created it, many of their structures, bridges, and roadways
still use the unique kind of concrete they created! This concrete was made of lime, volcanic ash, and
hydraulic cement.

 Joseph Aspdin
- Portland cement was created in 1824 by an Englishman by the name of Joseph Aspdin by the burning
of finely crushed chalk combined with clay. He gave his invention the Portland, England, construction
stone quarries as his inspiration.

A BRIEF CONCRETE TIMELINE

For ages, concrete has been utilized all throughout the world. This is a quick concrete chronology that ends in the
present.

 3000 BC – Egyptians used a mixture of mud and straw to bind dried bricks
 300 BC – Babylonians used bitumen to bind stones and bricks
 476 AD – Romans used a mortar mixture of 1 part lime to 4 parts sand. Animal fat, milk and blood were
also added to cement to alter its properties
 1678 – Joseph Moxon wrote about a hidden fire in heated lime that appears when water is added
 1779 – Bry Higgins was issued a patent for hydraulic cement (stucco) for exterior plastering use
 1796 – James Parker from England patented a natural hydraulic cement by calcining nodules of impure
limestone containing clay
 1818 – Natural cement was first produced in the USA
 1824 – Joseph Aspdin of England invented Portland cement
 1830 – The first production of lime and hydraulic cement took place in Canada
 1843 – J. M. Mauder, Son & Co. were licensed to produce patented Portland cement
 1887 – Henri le Chatelier of France established oxide ratios to prepare the proper amount of lime to
produce Portland cement
 1889 – The first concrete reinforced bridge was built
 1930 – Air entraining agents were introduced to improve concrete’s resistance to freeze/thaw damage
 1936 – The Hoover Dam and Coulee Dam, the first major concrete dams, were built
 1970 – Fibre-reinforced concrete was introduced
 1992 – The tallest reinforced concrete building in the world was constructed in Illinois

THE MODERN USES OF CONCRETE

The most common building material utilized nowadays is concrete. It serves as the basis for many
different types of constructions and is the cornerstone of the contemporary world. Among them are:
  Docks
 Dams
 Roads
 Bridges
 Tunnels
 Buildings
 Culverts and sewers
 Foundations
 Fences
 And much more!

CONCRETE

CHECK GDRIVE THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE P. 32

Sure, here's a brief explanation of the cement making process:

Extraction of Raw Materials: The primary materials used in cement manufacturing are limestone, clay,
shale, iron ore, and sand. These materials are extracted from quarries or mines.

Crushing and Grinding: The extracted raw materials are crushed into smaller pieces and then ground
into a fine powder. This process is usually done using crushers and mills.

Mixing and Preheating: The finely ground raw materials are blended together in proper proportions to
form what is known as raw meal. This raw meal is then preheated to temperatures of around 800 to
900°C in a preheater tower.

Clinker Production: The preheated raw meal enters a rotating kiln where it is heated to temperatures
exceeding 1400°C. This high temperature causes chemical reactions to occur, resulting in the formation
of clinker nodules, which are small, dark gray balls.

Cooling: The clinker is then cooled rapidly either in air or with water spray to prevent it from
reabsorbing moisture and solidifying into lumps.

Grinding of Clinker: The cooled clinker is ground into a fine powder along with a small amount of
gypsum to control the setting time of the cement.
Packaging and Distribution: The final cement product is then stored in silos or bags and is ready for
distribution to customers.

This process is energy-intensive and involves several chemical reactions, but it results in the production
of cement, which is a vital material used in construction for making concrete, mortar, and other building
applications.

REFERENCES

https://www.totalconcrete.co.uk/news/the-history-of-concrete/

https://www.concreteconstruction.net/business/technology/a-brief-history-of-concrete_c

https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-concrete-and-cement-1991653

https://www.britannica.com/technology/cement-building-material/Extraction-and-processing#ref76641

Masonry Construction Manual

Günter Pfeifer et al.; Birkhäuser, 2001

Masonry Design and Detailing for Architects and Contractors, 5th ed.

Christine Beall; McGraw-Hill, 2004

Complete Construction: Masonry and Concrete

Christine Beall; McGraw-Hill

Design of Reinforced Masonry Structures

Narendra Taly; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000

Reinforced Masonry Design

Robert R. Schneider; Prentice-Hall, 1980

Indiana Limestone Handbook, 21st ed.

Indiana Limestone Institute, 2002

www.bia.org (Brick Industry Association)