Experiments 563

EXPERIMENT-1
ctire-Verificationof Kirchhoff's current law,.
Required:24 Vbattery or regulated power supply-1,
VAgpsatus PMMC ammeters 0-1 A-3 nos., Rheostats 10 2,1 A
connecting wires.
3nos.and
Accordingto Kirchhoff's current law, in any network of wires
ieary: carrying currents, the algebraic sum of
etingata
pointt(orjunction) is zero or the sum of
incoming currents towards any point is equal to the sum ofall currents
Tentss
awayfromthat point. outgoing
coanectiornDiagram:

A1
R1
24 V I4 10 So, 1A
BATTERY
OR REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY
R R3
10 2, 10 2,
1A 1A

A2 Ag

Fig
Procedure:Three rheostats R,, R, and R, and ammeters A,, A, and A, are connected to 24 V
supply as shown in Fig. 1.The three rheostats are set to their battery or regulated power
ammeters A,, A, and A are noted. The process may be repeated bymaximum values, supply is switched on, and the readings of
varying either of rheostats R, R, or R:
Observations:

S. No. Readings of Readings of Readings of

Ammeter A Ammeter A,, I, Ammeter A, l3
1.
2
3.
4

Conclusion: It will be found that current I, is equal to the sum of currents I, and L,. Hence
Kirchhoff's current law is
Verified.

EXPERIMENT-2

Objective: Verification of Kirchhoff'svoltage law.

Apparatus Required:24 V battery or regulated power supply-1,PMMC voltmeters )-24 V 3 nos., Rheosats 10 .
2.5 A 2 nos. and connecting wires.
 564
Electrical Engineering

or mesh, the
law, in any closed circuitand
Tneory: According to Kirchhoff's voltage currents i algebraic sum of emfs
resistances
ciarcctuiingt oin hemeshcirevin
of the products of the of
or mesh is equalto the algebraic
sum each part of the
Connection Diagram:

Rt
10 2, 2.5A
24 V 8ATTERY
OR REGULATED
Vi
POWER SUPPLY
V2
102, R2
V3 2.5 A

Fig.2
Procedure:Two rheostats R,.R, and three voltmeters V, V, and V are connected to 24 V battery or
supplv as shown in Fig. 2. Two rheostats are set to their maximum' values, supply is reguilated
voltmeters V,. V, and V,are noted. The process may be repeated by varying either of theswitched R,and the reatinas
on,
rheostats or R.
Observations:

S No. Readings of Voltmeter Readings of Voltneter Readings of Voltmeter

V, in Volts V, in Volts V, in Volts
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

vonuslon- It willbe found that voltage V, is equal to he sum of voltages V, and V,. Hence Kirchhot's volage a
verified.
 Experiments 571

EXPERIMENT-9
bjective.: Determination of parameters of ac single phase
series R-L-C circuit.
Agparatus Required: Variac or l-phase
Capacitor-1, Moving-iron voltmeter auto-transformer-1, Non-inductive resistor (or lamp load)-1, Inductor (or
oke-l, (0-250V-1, Moving-iron voltmeter
.Dynamometer type wattmeter (250V, 5A)-1,
Double pole, single throw (0-150V)-2, Moving iron-ammeter (0-
switch (DPST) switch-1, Connecting
eory: Current flowing through an ac circuit is given asI=
where V is the ac supply voltage (voltage
he circuit) and Z is the impedance of circuit in
Z applied
ohms.
Power factor of an ac circuit is given as
cos ) = where P is the power of the given circuit in
VI watts, V
sthe voltage applied to the circuit in volts and Iis the
current flowing through the circuit.
Resistance of the circuit, R = Z ¢ cos
Reactance of the circuit, X, or Xr = JZ -R' or = Z sin
In case of R-L-C circuit,
X = X- Xe = yz? -R? or = Z sin o

and C= and L = Xç +X
+ sign for 2f Xe2Ttf 2f
lagging power factor i.e. when X > Xr
- Sign forleading power factor i.e. when Xc> X
Inductance can also be determined by measuring
voltage drop across inductor directly.
In this case L =
2f Ix2nf
Similarly capacitance can be determined by
measuring voltage drop across capacitor direcily and C =
onnection Diagram: 2nfV
eeOeQo0000
AMMETER WATTMETER
DPST CC
Y SWITCH
CSUPPI V
VOLTMETER,
VARIAC PC

000000

Fig. 13
Fig. 14
"Tocedure: Variac, ammeter, voltmeterS, wallmeler, load
are connected cireuit consisting
through DPST switch to a single phase ac Nupply mains asof resistor R, inductor L and.
neter, vo]tmeters and wattmeter are noted for various shown iu Fig, II, The capacitor
settiugs of variuc, readings ot
bservations: Supply frequency f = 50 Hz
 EXPERIMENT-16

Objective: Tostudy P-N diode characteristics.

Apparatus Required: Regulated power supply-1, Resistor-I, DC Voltmeter (0-1V)-1, DC Milliammeter-I. DC M
ammeter-1, DCVoltmeter (0-10V)-1and Connecting wires.
Theory: When the external voltage is zero i.e. when the circuit is open, the potential barrier at the junctiondoes not allow ehe
flow of current and, therefore, the circuit current is zero, as shownin Fig.24.
With forward bias to the P-N junction (i.e. P-region connected to + ve terminal and N-region connected to:
of the battery) very little current, called the forward current, flows until he forward voltage exceeds the junction ban
potential (0.3 Vfor Ge and 0.7 Vfor Si). The characteristic follows an exponential law. As the forward voltage is increasei
to the knee of the characteristic, the barrier potential is progressively reduced to zero, allowing more and more majority charce
carriers to flow across the junction. Beyond the knee of the characteristics, the potential barrier is completely eliminated
forward current increases almost linearly with the increase in forward voltage and the P-N junction starts behaving sa
resistor. If the forward voltage is increased beyond acertain value, extremely large current willlow and the PNjunction may
get destroyed due to over heating.
 Experiments 579

nonlinearknee ofthe
curve. if avery small signal voltageis appliedto the diode so that it only operates
the e be distorted. The signal must, therefore, be large enoughto operate the diode over the linear
signalwill
Of
BAUSC

athe
,the
knec
Forwardresistanceof P-N junctionislow (of the order of 75 2in case of Ge and 150 2in case of
characteristic

ate

-REVERSE BIAS IN VOLTS

SILICON -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 REVERSE
CURRENT

IN
pA
SER
KNEE
VOLTAGE. 03V
KNEE
KNEE
KNEE
VOLTAGE 0.7 V

0.7 08 09
0.1 02 0.3 04 05 06
FORWARD BIAS IN VOLTS
P-N Junction
Characteristics For P-N Junction Fig. 25 Reverse Characteristics For
Ciá 24 Forward (i.e. when P-region is connected to the negative
bias
When the reverse bias is applied
2. Reverse Characteristics.
positivebias terminal), the potential barrier at junction is increased,therefore, the
wrminal and N-region is connected tothe of amajority carriers flowing acroOss
a reverse biased
there is no possibility
iunction resistance becomes very high and side can cross the junction. Electrons on the P-side
are attracted across
generated on cach negative
Mnction. But still minority carricrs holes on the N-side may travel across the junction to the
potential on the N-side and current and
the junction to thepositive current. as illustrated in Fig. 25. This current is called reverse
verv small
polential on the P-side. This resuits in a
isdue to minority carricrs. germanium,the reverse
CuITentNtypicallv less than IuA and may be as low as 1nA. In case of junction,
For silicon the reverse voltage is necessary to direct all minority carriers across the current
reverse
current may exceed 10 uA. Onlya very small increase in bias voltage will not increase the
current. This
flowing across. further (of the order of M2).
and when allminority carriers are designated as I,. Reverse resistance is very high
satwration current and is When the
NTelerred to as a reverse
reverse current L, is made up of minority charge carriers crossing the junction.break away
As discussed above,the thermal energy causes more electrons
increased. the additional
to
Iemperature of the semiconductor material is generates more minority charge carriers. So
reverse saturation current
hole-electron pairs and
Irom atoms.This creates more doubles for each 10° Crise
increase in the junction temperature. It has been found that I, approximately
Increases with the case of
and for each 8°C rise in temperature in
In temperature in case of germanium
silicon.
milliammster A, voltmeter Vand regu
Procedure: Silicon or gernmanium diode. Reading of voltmeter Vand
in Fig. 26.
lated power supply is connected,as shownvoltages.
MILLIAMMETER

ammeter A are noted for different applied

reversed, milliammeter is replaced 0-10 V
Now the connection of diode to supply are R
is replaced by a voltmeter of high range (0
by microammeter and voltmeter (0-1V)microammeter are noted for different input
10V). Readings of voltmeter V and
voltages. plotted between voltage V and Fig. 26 Connection Diagram
The results are tabulated, and curves are
current
Observations:
ForwardCharacteristic Reverse Characteristic
Voltmeter Reading
Voltmeter Reading
in VoltsV
Milliammeter
Reading in m A, I in Volts, V Microammetin erHA
Reading
0.0 L.0
0.1 2.0
0.2 3.0
0.5
4.0
0.8
5.0
10

Concusion: The plotted V-I characteristics resemble to those shown in figs. 24 and 25 respectively _