HIGHER MATH
Integration and
its applications
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Integration
Integration
Indefinite Integrals
Definition (primitive or Ant derivative)
A function ø (x) is called a primitive or an antiderivative
of a function f (x) if ø’ (x) = f (x)
Let ø (x) be a primitive of a function f (x) and let c be any
constant.
d
Then (ø(x) + c) = ø’ (x) = f (x) ⇒ ø (x) + c is also a
dx
primitive of f (x).
Thus, if a function f (x) possesses a primitive ø (x), then it
possesses infinitely many primitives which are contained
in the expression ø (x) + c, where c is any constant.
So, let f (x) be a function. Then the collection of all its
primitives is called the indefinite integral of f (x) and is
denoted by ∫ f (x) dx,
d
Thus (ø (x) + c) = f (x) ⇔∫ f (x) dx = ø (x) + c.
dx
Where ø (x) is primitive and c is an arbitrary constant
known as the constant of integration.
1
Here ∫is the integral sign, f (x) is the integrand, x is the
variable of integration and dx is the element of
integration.
The process of finding an indefinite integral of a given
function is called integration of the function.
Some elementary integrals:
d
Since (ø (x)) = f (x) ⇔ ∫ f (x) dx = ø (x) + c, therefore
dx
this definition leads to the following basic results:
d x n 1 xn 1
(i) x n , n 1
dx n 1
x n dx
n 1
C, n 1
(ii)
d
log x 1
1
x dx log x C
dx x
(iii)
d x
dx
e ex
ex dx ex C
d ax ax
(iv) ax
a x dx C
dx log e a log a
d
(v) (sin x ) cos x
cos x dx sin x C
dx
d
(vi) ( cos x ) sin x
sin xdx cos x C
dx
d
(vii) (tan x ) sec2 x
sec2 xdx tan x C
dx
2
d
(viii) ( cot x ) cos ec 2 x
cosec 2 x dx cot x C
dx
d
(ix) (sec x ) sec x tan x
sec x tan x dx sec x C
dx
d
(x) ( cos ecx) cos ecx cot x
cosecx cot x dx cosec x C
dx
d
(xi) ( log cos x ) tan x
tan x dx log cos x C
dx
d
(xii)
(log (sec x tan x )) sec x sec x dx log sec x tan x C
dx
d
(xiii)
(log (cosecx cot x ) cosecx cosecxdx log cosecx cot x C
dx
d
(xiv) (log sin x ) cot x cot x dx log sin x C
dx
Definite integration.
If ∫ f (x) dx = g (x) + c, then
Properties of definite integrals
b
1. If f (x) ≥ 0 on the interval [a, b], then f (x)
a
dx 0. If
f (x) > 0 for all points of [a, b]. Then af ( x ) dx 0.
b
3
b b
2. If f (x) ≤ g (x) on [a, b], then a
f ( x ) dx g( x ) dx.
a
3. (f1(x) + f2(x)) dx = f1(x) dx + f2(x) dx
b b b
a
a a
4. c f(x)dx = c a f(x) dx, c ∈ R
b b
a
b b
5. f (x)dx
a a
f ( x ) dx
b b
6. a
f ( x ) dx f ( t )dt.
a
b a
7. a
f ( x ) dx f ( x )dx.
b
b c b
8. f (x) dx f (x )dx f (x )dx.
a a c
b b
9. a
f ( x ) dx f (a b x)dx,
a
in particular
b b
0
f ( x ) dx f (b x )dx,
0
a/2
a a/2
10. 0
f ( x ) dx 0
f(x) + 0
f(a – x) dx in particular,
0 if f (a x ) f ( x )
a
f ( x )dx a / 2
0
0
2 f ( x )dx if f (a x ) f ( x )
11. If f (-x) = f (x) (i.e., f is an even function), then
f ( x )dx 2 f ( x )dx .
a a
a
0
4
12. If f (-x) = -f(x) (i.e., f is an odd function), then
a
a
f ( x ) dx 0.
Note: For, y = log x x 2 a 2
1
y’ =
x2 a2
log( x x 2 a 2 )
So, If I = x2 a2
dx
2
Then, Put log x x a t
2
I = t dt t 2 C = [log x x 2 a 2 ]2/2 + c
1
2
Applications of Integration:
Area of a plane figure: The area of the figure bounded by
the graph of a continuous function y = f (x) where (f (x) ≥
0), two straight lines x = a and x = b, and the x – axis, i.e.,
the area of a curvilinear trapezoid bounded by an arc of
the graph of the function y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b, is computed
by the formula
5
…………… (1)
b
s f (x)dx
a
y = f2(x)
y = f1(x)
The area of the figure bounded by the graphs of two
continuous functions y = f1(x) and y = f2 (x), f1 (x) ≤ f2(x),
and two straight lines x = a and x = b is determined by
the formula
b
s (f (x ) f (x )dx ……………… (2)
a
2 1
Sometimes it is required to use the formulae similar to
(1) and (2) but with respect to y, i.e., regarding x as a
function of y. In particular, the area bounded by the curve
x = f (y), the y –axis and the two lines, y = c and y = d is
d
given by s cf ( y)dy.
The area of the figure bounded by the graphs of two
continuous functions x = f1 (y) and x = f2(y) (with f1(y) ≤
f2(y)), and the two straight lines y = c and y = d is given by
6
d
s f 2 ( y) f1 ( y))dy
c
Substitution method: If the given integral is of the form,
f ( x). f ' ( x).dx then we let f(x) = t such that f’(x).dx = dt
and the integral becomes t dt .
By Parts: If the integral is in the form of
f ( x ).g ( x).dx
, then
we let one of the functions as I and second one as II,
using ILATE (Inverse, Logarithm, Algebra, Trigonometry,
Exponential) rule. And the formulae used for the
integration of this form is
d I
I . II dx I II .dx dx . II .dx dx
Partial fractions: In partial fraction, we can factorize the
denominator and then decompose them into two
different fractions where the denominators are the
factors respectively and the numerator is calculated
suitably.
A B
x a
px q dx dx
x a x bdx x b
