Integrals

Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation

• Integration is the inverse of differentiation. It is also called as anti-differentiation.

• The integration of a function f(x) with respect to x is denoted by .

• Example: We know that

Here, 2x is the derived function of x2 and x2 is primitive of 2x or we say x2 is the anti-derivative (or
an integral) of 2x.

• If there is a function F such that , &mnForE;x∈I (interval), then for any

C∈R, = f(x), x∈I.

∴ {F+ C, C∈R} is called the family of anti-derivatives of f.

[C is called the constant of integration]

• Notation: If , then we write

• Formulae for integrals of some functions.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)
 (vi)

(viii) s

(ix)

(x)

(xi)

(xii)

(xiii)

(xiv)

(xv)

(xvi)

• Geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral

The equation = y (say) represents a family of curves. For different values

of C, there correspond different members of this family and these members can be obtained by
shifting any one of the curves parallel to it. This can be diagrammatically represented as
 Important properties of indefinite integral

• Two indefinite integrals with the same derivative lead to the same family of curves. Hence, they are
equivalent.

The equivalence of families {∫f(x) dx + C1, C1∈R} and {∫g(x) dx + C2, C2∈R} is denoted as

∫f(x) dx = ∫g(x) dx

• ∫ [f (x) ± g(x)]dx = ∫f(x)dx ± ∫g(x)dx

• ∫kf (x)dx = k∫f(x)dx where k∈R

Comparison between Differentiation and Integration

• Both satisfy the property of linearity

• All functions are not differentiable. Similarly, all functions are not integrable

• The derivative of a function, when it exists, is a unique function. However, it is not so in the case of
integration.

• The derivative of a function at a point may exist. However, an integral at a point makes no sense.
We usually find the integral of a function over an interval.

Solved Examples

Example 1
 Find the anti-derivative of sin2x.

Solution:

∴ The anti-derivative of sin2x is .

Example 2

Integrate .

Solution:

Method of Integration by Substitution

• The given integral ∫f(x)dx can be transformed into another form by changing the independent
variable x to t by substituting x = g(t)

Put x = g(t) so that

Then,

• For example, integrate cos (mx + 1) with respect to x.

Let t = (mx + 1)

∴ dt = m dx ⇒ dx =

∴ ∫cos(mx + 1) dx =
 Integration using trigonometric identities

• When the integrand involves some trigonometric functions, identities can be used to find the
integral.

• For example, solve

cos 3x = 4cos3 x − 3cos x

Integrals of Some Particular Functions

•
• For finding , we first express

Then, let t=x+b2at=x+b2a so that dt = dx and write

Then, the integral is reduced to the form . Depending upon the sign of , the given
integral can be evaluated.

• Integral of the type can also be evaluated by the previous method.

• To find the integral of the type , where p, q, a, b and c are constants, we first find A,
B and C such that

(ax2 + bx + c) + B

• = A(2ax + b) + B
A and B are to be determined by equating the co-efficients of x and constant terms. Thus, the given
integral reduces to some standard form, which can be further evaluated easily.

• Integral of type can be evaluated by the previous method.

Solved Examples

Example 1:

Integrate sin5 x cos3 x with respect to x.

Solution:

Put cos x = t
∴ − sin x dx = dt

⇒ dx =

sin4x = (sin2x)2
= (1 − cos2x)2
= (1 − t2)2
= 1 + t4 − 2t2

∴ sin4x t3 = (1 + t4 − 2t2) t3 = t3 + t7 − 2t5

Example 2:

Solve:

Solution:

−2sin 6x sin 4x = cos(6x + 4x) − cos(6x − 4x)

= cos 10x − cos 2x

=
Example 3:

Solve:

Solution:

Example 4:

Solve:

Solution:

Example 5:

Solve:

Solution:

(x − 1) = A (3x2 − 2x + 4) + B

⇒ x − 1 = A (6x − 2) + B

= 6Ax − 2A + B

Here, 6A = 1, 2A − B = 1

⇒A= ,B=

(say)
 In I1, put 3x2 − 2x + 4 = t so that (6x − 2)dx = dt

I1 =

= log |3x2 − 2x + 4| + C1

∴I = (where C = C1+ C2)

Integration by Partial Fractions

• Integral of rational function (where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials in x and q(x) ≠ 0) can be
performed by expressing the integral as a sum of simple rational functions, and then apply known

method. In this method, if is improper, then we first convert it into proper fraction

(i.e., = , where T(x) is a polynomial in x and is a proper rational

function), by long division process.

• Types of simpler of partial fractions that are to be associated with various kind of rational
functions can be listed as:

Form of Rational Function Form of the Partial Fraction

 A, B, C are real numbers that are to
be determined.
Where, x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised
further.

Some Related Solved Problems

Example 1:

Solve:

Solution:

x2 − 3x − 4 = (x + 1) (x − 4)

Let

∴ 1 − 2x = A(x − 4) + B(x + 1)

⇒ 1 − 2x = (A + B) x + B − 4A

Comparing coefficient of x and constant term,

A + B = −2 and B − 4A = 1
On solving the above two equations, we get A = ,B= .

Example 2:

Solve:

Solution:

⇒ 2x + 1 = A(x − 1) (x + 2) + B (x + 2) + C (x − 1)2

⇒ 2x + 1 = A(x2 + x − 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x2 − 2x + 1)

⇒ 2x + 1 = (A + C)x2 + (A + B − 2C)x − 2A + 2B + C

Comparing coefficients and constant terms,

A + C = 0, A + B − 2C = 2, −2A + 2B + C = 1

On solving, we obtain A = , B = 1, C =
Example 3:

Solve:

Solution:

Let

⇒ x + 1 = (A + B)x2 + (C − 3B) x + 2A − 3C

Comparing coefficients of x2, x, and constant terms.

A + B = 0, C − 3B = 1, 2A − 3C = 1
 Integration by Parts

• The function of the form f(x) g(x) can be integrated by using the method of integration by parts.

Integral of the product of two functions = (First function) × (Integral of the second function) −
Integral of [(Differential coefficient of the first function) × (Integral of the second function)]

• Generally, a polynomial function is taken as first function. In cases where other function is inverse
trigonometric or a logarithmic function, then they are taken as first function.
• In finding the integral of second function, the constant of integration is not added.

• The integral of the type can be evaluated by the method of integration

by parts and can be concluded as

• For example, consider

• Integrals of the form can also be integrated by the method of

integration by parts.

• For example, consider

Put x + 3 = t, so that dx = dt
Then,

Solved Examples

Example 1: Find the integral of:

(i) x sin x (ii) ex x

Solution:

(i)

(ii)

Example 2: Find the integral of .

Solution:
 Therefore, the given integrand is of the form .

Example 3: Find the integral of

Solution:

Put1 − x = t so that dx = −dt

Then,

Definite Integral as Limit of Sums

• A definite integral is denoted by , where ‘a’ is called the lower limit of the integral
and ‘b’ is called upper limit of the integral.

Definite integral of a function f(x) over an interval [a, b] can be calculated as:

where, → 0 as n → ∞.
Solved Examples

Example 1:

Find as the limit of a sum.

Solution:

Here, a = 0, b = 3, f(x) = x3,

Example 2:

Find:

Solution:
 Here, a = 0, b =1, f(x) = e2x,

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

• The area function A (x) is defined as , where f is a continuous function defined on

the interval [a, b] and it represents the area of the shaded region as shown below.

• Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be the area function. Then,
for all x ∈ [a, b]. This is the first fundamental theorem of calculus.
• Let f be a continuous function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be an anti-derivative of f.

Then, . This is the second fundamental theorem of calculus.

• In , the function f needs to be well-defined and continuous in [a, b].

Solved Examples

Example 1

Evaluate the integral .

Solution:

Example 2

Evaluate the integral .

Solution:
 Example 3

Evaluate the integral .

Solution:

Evaluating Definite Integrals by Substitution Method

• The steps for evaluating by substitution method can be listed as:

Step l: Considering the integral without limits, substitute y = f(x) or x = g(y) to reduce the given
integral to a known form and the limits of integral are accordingly changed.
Step 2: Integrate the new integrand with respect to the new variable, and then find the difference
of the values at the obtained upper and lower limits.

Solved Examples

Example 1:

Solution:

Put 1 + x3 = t

Then, 3x2dx = dt

When x = 1, t = 2

x = 2, t = 9
Example 2:

Solution:

Put cos 3 x = t

Then, −3sin 3xdx = dt

x = 0 ⇒ t = 1 and

Example 3:

Solution:

Put log x2 = t so that

x = − 2 ⇒ t = log 4

x = 3 ⇒ t = log 9
 Properties of Definite Integrals

• . In particular:

• .

• .In particular:

• In if f is an even function i.e., f (−x) = f (x)

• , if f is an odd function i.e., f (−x) = – f (x)

Solved Examples
Example 1:Evaluate:

Solution:

Example 2:Evaluate:

Solution:

It can be seen that f (x) is an even function. Therefore,

Example 3:Evaluate:

Solution: