WELL LOG ANALYSIS

BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION

CONCEPT
3RD STAGE
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
BAGHDAD UNIVERSITY
Dr. Rwaida Kaiser
 ❑ BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION CONCEPT
• Rock properties that affect logging measurements are: porosity,
lithology and mineralogy, permeability, water saturation and
resistivity.
1. Porosity (φ)
Porosity can be defined as the ratio of voids to the total volume of
rock.

The amount of internal spaces in a given volume of rock is a

measure of the amount of fluid a rock will hold. The amount of void
space interconnected, and able to transmit fluids is called effective
porosity. Total porosity is both void space connected and not
connected.

1- Primary Porosity Usually related to granular, is the porosity

developed by the original sedimentation process by which the rock
was created.
Facts: The highest porosity normally anticipated is 47.6%. A more
2- Secondary Porosity Secondary Porosity is created by
probable porosity is in the mid-twenties. In reality, porosity’s
processes which occur after deposition. An example of secondary
greater than 40% are rare. These may be found in surface sands
porosity can be found in limestones or Dolomites which has been
that are neither compacted nor consolidate
dissolved by ground waters, a process which creates vugs or
caverns. Fracturing and dolomitization also create secondary • In general, porosities tend to be lower in deeper and older rocks.
porosity. This decrease in porosity is due primarily to:
❑ Factor Controls on Porosity
1- overburden 2- time 3- stresses on the rock,
•Grain Size
4- cementation. There are many exceptions to this general trend
•Grain Packing
when normal overburden conditions do not prevail
•Grain Shape
•Grain Size Distribution
2. Lithology and Mineralogy
• Since chalk results in the same response on logs as calcium
Lithology describes the solid (matrix) portion of the rock, generally in
carbonate, it is classified as a limestone.
the context of a description of the primary mineralogy of the rock (e.g.,
• Dolomite (CaCO3Mg CO3) differs strongly from limestone on well
a sandstone as a description of a rock composed primarily of quartz
log readings.
grains, or a limestone composed primarily of calcium carbonate).
ROCK CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Physically, dolomite differs from limestone significantly in density,
This classification system is based on the following categories of hardness and other properties.
rocks: • NaCl, Anhydrite, Gypsum and Clay are relatively common rocks,
• Sandstones - SiO2; but differ significantly from sandstone, limestone and dolomite.
• Limestones - CaCO3; • Halite is common table salt, (NaCl) and will record as NaCl.
• Dolomite - CaCO3Mg CO3; Anhydrite is calcium sulphate and although gypsum is calcium
• NaCl, Anhydrite, Gypsum, Clay sulphate plus crystalline water, the water in gypsum creates a large
Since the classification is on a purely chemical basis and not on a difference between the two log responses.
grain size basis, silt is considered as a very small grained
❑ Shaly Formations This describes formations where some of the
sandstone.
formation void space (porosity) is filled with shale. Shale distribution
Chert is also classified as a sandstone although the crystal structure
is considered to be:
is different it looks like sandstone on well logs
- Laminated: The formation is built up of thin laminae of sand and
• The only apparent maverick in the system is shale, shale.
which in reality is clay, and is classified as clay. - Dispersed: The shale particles are dispersed in the pore space.
• For general usage, there is no need to differentiate - Structural: The shale replaces matrix
between the various clay minerals which make up shales
as long as clean shales are considered as being clay.
• A few rock types have been omitted but these omissions
are not considered serious. For example, a
conglomerate is nothing more than a grain size
variation of sandstone, limestones with regular, spherical
grains are not classified as sandstones but as limestone.
• Limestone is calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
3. Permeability (k) 4. Water Saturation (Sw)
Permeability is the ability of a rock to transmit fluids. It is related to This is the amount of pore volume in a rock that is occupied by
porosity but is not always dependent upon it. Permeability is formation water.
controlled by the size of the connecting passages between pores
(measured in darcys). The ability of a rock to transmit a single fluid,
when it is completely saturated with that fluid, is called absolute
permeability.
Effective permeability refers to the ability of the rock to transmit one It is important to note that hydrocarbon saturation rather than
fluid in the presence of another fluid when the two fluids are water saturation is of prime interest to the explorationist.
immiscible. Formation or connate water held by capillary pressure Hydrocarbon saturation is usually determined by the difference
in the pores of a rock serves to inhibit the transmission of between unity and water saturation:
hydrocarbons. As a consequence, it may block or otherwise reduce Sh = 1- Sw
the ability of other fluids to move through the rock.
• Irreducible water saturation or Sw irr is a term used to
Relative permeability is the ratio between effective permeability of
a fluid at partial saturation and the permeability at 100% saturation
describe the water saturation at which all the water is
(absolute permeability). adsorbed on the grains in a rock or is held in the capillaries
➢ Darcy’s law helps us to measure the degree of permeability.

❖ The factors affecting the magnitude of Permeability are:

 Shape and size of grain sizes (pore system),

 Cementation
 Sorting
 Lithology or rock type
 fracturing and Dissolution
 FORMATION RESISTIVITY Archie also showed that the formation factor (F) could be
The electrical resistivity (reciprocal of conductivity) of a fluid-saturated related to the porosity of the formation by the following
rock is its ability to impede the flow of electric current through that formula:
rock. In log interpretation, hydrocarbon, the rock, and fresh water of
the formation are all assumed to act as insulators (very highly
resistive) to electric current flow.
where m is the cementation exponent whose value varies with
• Dry rocks exhibit infinite resistivity. A rock that contains oil and
grain size, grain-size distribution, and the complexity of the paths
gas will have more resistivity as compared to rock that is
between pores (tortuosity), and a is the tortuosity factor commonly
completely saturated with formation water.
set to 1.0. Water saturation (Sw) is determined from the waterfilled
• Salt water, however, is a conductor and has a low resistivity. The
resistivity (Ro) and the actual (true) formation resistivity (Rt) by the
measurement of resistivity is then a measurement of the salinity of
following relationship:
the formation water. Mathematically where:

where n is the saturation exponent, whose value varies from

1.8 to 2.5 commonly assumed to be 2. By combining the last
two equations, the watersaturation formula can be rewritten in
the following form:
R = resistivity (ohm-m)
r = resistance (ohms)
A = cross-sectional area (m² )
L = length of substance (m) Or
• Resistivity is a function of porosity, type of fluid (i.e.,
hydrocarbons, salt water, or fresh water), amount of fluid, and
type of rock. This is Archie equation for water saturation (Sw)
Archie’s experiments showed that the resistivity of a water-filled formation ❑ The measured resistivity of a formation depends on
(Ro) could be related to the resistivity of the water (Rw) filling the formation - resistivity of the formation water
through a constant called the formation resistivity factor (F): - amount of water present
- pore structure geometry
Table 1. Coefficients and exponents used to calculate formation • Formation Resistivity Factor versus Porosity
factor. (Modified after Asquith, 1980)

Ro is the resistivity of rock containing brine while Rt is the true

resistivity i.e. resistivity of rock containing hydrocarbons along with
connate water.
RW which is the resistivity of brine is constant while RO depends
upon saturation as resistivity is a function of water saturation
 If there is a suite of such measurements from core plugs from a
Note: Both the formation factor and the cementation exponent particular formation, a mean cementation exponent can be obtained
can be measured on core plugs in the laboratory. graphically by plotting F against f on log-log graph paper, which gives a
straight line for a given lithotype, which intersects F=1 when f=1, and
with a gradient equal to –m. This is shown in Fig. Note that sometimes
a constant ‘a’ is placed before the porosity term, and so F=a when f=1.
However, there is no physical justification for this term. It arises from
applying a best fit engineering equation to F versus porosity data, and
should be avoided.

Figure shows a formation factor-porosity cross-plot for various

values of the cementation exponent.
5. BOREHOLE ENVIRONMENT
Where a hole is drilled into a formation, the rock plus the
fluids in it are altered in the vicinity of the borehole. The
borehole and the rock surrounding it are contaminated by
the drilling mud, which affects logging measurements.
❑ Figure illustrates a porous and permeable formation
penetrated by a borehole filled with drilling mud.
dh = hole diameter
di = diameter of invaded zone (inner boundary of flushed
zone)
dj = diameter of invaded zone (outer boundary of invaded
zone)
Δrj = radius of invaded zone (outer boundary)
hmc = thickness of mud cake
Rm = resistivity of the drilling mud
Rmc = resistivity of the mud cake
Rmf = resistivity of mud filtrate
Rs = resistivity of the overlying bed (commonly assumed
to be shale)
Rt = resistivity of uninvaded zone (true formation
resistivity)
Rw = resistivity of formation water
Rxo = resistivity of flushed zone
Sw = water saturation of uninvaded zone
Sxo = water saturation flushed zone
Rm – resistivity of the drilling mud
Rmc – resistivity of the mud cake
Rmf – resistivity of mud filtrate
Rs – resistivity of shale
Rt – resistivity of uninvited zone(true resistivity)
Rw – resistivity of formation water Deep (True)
Rxo – resistivity of flushed zone Resistivity

Medium Shallow
(Transition (Flushed
Zone) Resistivity Zone)
Resistivity
Hole Diameter (dh)
The borehole size is determined by the outside diameter of the drill bit.
But, the diameter of the borehole may be Invaded Zone
• larger than the bit size because of washout and/or collapse of shale The zone in which much of the original fluid is replaced by mud
and poorly cemented porous rocks, or filtrate. It consists of a flushed zone (of resistivity Rxo) and a
• smaller than the bit size because of a build up of mud cake on porous transition or annulus zone (of resistivity Ri).
and permeable formations . Common borehole sizes normally vary from
7 - 12 in.. The size of the borehole is measured by a caliper log. The flushed zone occurs close to the borehole where the mud
filtrate has almost completely flushed out a formation’s hydrocarbon
Drilling mud Resistivity (Rm) and/or water (Rw). The transition zone, where a formation’s fluids
Most wells are drilled with rotary bits with the use of a drilling mud, as a and mud filtrate are mixed, occurs between the flushed zone and
circulating fluid. the uninvaded zone (of resistivity Rt). The depth of mud-filtrate
invasion into the invaded zone is referred to as diameter of invasion
(di and dj).

Flushed zone Resistivity (Rxo)

The flushed zone extends a few inches from the wellbore and is
part of the invaded zone. If invasion is deep or moderate, most
The mud helps: often the flushed zone is completely cleared of its formation water
remove cuttings from the wellbore, by mud filtrate (of resistivity Rmf). When oil is present in the flushed
lubricate and cool the drill bit, and zone, the degree of flushing by mud filtrate can be determined from
maintain an excess of borehole pressure over formation pressure to the difference between water saturations in the flushed (Sxo) zone
prevents blowouts. and the uninvaded (Sw) zone). Usually, about 70% to 95% of the oil
The density of the mud is usually kept high so that hydrostatic pressure in is flushed out; the remaining oil is called residual oil.
the mud column is greater than formation pressure. This pressure
difference forces some of the drilling fluid to invade porous and Uninvaded zone Resistivity (Rt)
permeable formation. As invasion occurs, many of the solid particles are The uninvaded zone is located beyond the invaded zone . Pores
trapped on the side of the borehole and form mud cake (having a here are uncontaminated by mud filtrate; instead, they are
resistivity of Rmc). Fluid that filters into the formation during invasion is saturated with formation water (Rw), oil, and/or gas.
called mud filtrate (with a resistivity of Rmf).
INVASION AND RESISTIVITY Annulus profile : Fluid distribution occurs
PROFILES between the invaded zone and the uninvaded
Illustrates the horizontal distributions of the invaded zone and only exists in the presence of
and uninvaded zones and their corresponding hydrocarbon.
resistivities moving away from the borehole into a
formation. There are three profiles: In the flushed part (Rxo) of the invaded zone,
• step pores are filled with both mud filtrate and residual
• transition hydrocarbon . Thus the resistivity reads high .
• annulus Pores beyond the flushed part of the invaded zone
(Ri) are filled with a mixture of mud filtrate,
Step profile : The invaded zone has an abrupt formation water , and residual hydrocarbon .
contact with the uninvaded zone. The resistivity of
the invaded zone is Rxo, and that of the uninvaded Beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone is
zone is Rt (where Rt reduces to Ro when the the annulus zone, where pores are filled with
formation is water bearing) . formation water (Rw) and residual hydrocarbons .
When an annulus profile is present, there is an
Transition profile : The invasion of the mud filtrate abrupt drop in measured resistivity at the outer
(Rmf) diminishes gradually, through a transition zone boundary of the invaded zone. The is due to the
toward the outer boundary of the invaded zone . In high concentration of formation water (Rw) in the
the flushed part (Rxo) of the invaded zone, pores are annulus zone .
filled with mud filtrate, giving high resistivity. In the
transition part of the invaded zone, pores are filled
with mud filtrate , formation water (Rw), and, residual
hydrocarbon .

Beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone,

pores are filled with either formation water or
formation water and hydrocarbon. In this diagram,
hydrocarbon is not present, so resistivity of the
uninvaded zone is low
Figure: Resistivity profile for a transition-style invasion of a
water-bearing formation.

Note: Freshwater muds and saltwater muds are used in different

geographic regions. The type of mud used is on the log heading.
Freshwater muds: The resistivity of the mud filtrate (Rmf) > the
resistivity of the formation water (Rw) (saltwater is conductive).

Generally Rmf > 3 Rw. The flushed zone (Rxo), which has a
greater amount of mud filtrate, has higher resistivities. Away from
the borehole, the resistivity of the invaded zone (Ri) decreases
due to the decreasing amount of mud filtrate (Rmf) and the
increasing amount of formation water (Rw).

In a water-bearing formation, the resistivity of the uninvaded zone

is low because the pores are filled with formation water (Rw). In
the uninvaded zone, true resistivity (Rt) is equal to wet resistivity
(Ro) because the formation is completely saturated with formation
water (Rt = Ro where the formation is completely saturated with
formation water).

Therefore: Rxo> Ri > Rt in water-bearing zones.

Saltwater muds: Because the resistivity of mud filtrate (Rmf) is

approximately equal to the resistivity of formation water (Rmf ~
Rw), there is no appreciable difference in the resistivity from the
flushed (Rxo) to the invaded zone (Ri) to the uninvaded zone (Rxo
= Ri = Rt); all have low resistivities

Horizontal section through a permeable water bearing bed

NET TO GROSS NET:
NTG The percentage of a gross thickness of reservoir
with sufficient permeability such that it is capable of
flowing hydrocarbon
Thickness of clean, permeable, hydrocarbon-containing
rock in the reservoir zone. Gross: The thickness of rock in
the reservoir zone irrespective of whether it is clean, its
permeability or its fluid saturation. N2G: The net to
gross ratio (thickness of net rock divided by the
thickness of gross rock) is often used to represent the
quality of a reservoir zone.
BASIC INFORMATION NEEDED IN LOG
INTERPRETATION
Lithology In quantitative log analysis, there are several reasons For example: Temperature Gradient Calculation.
why it is important to know the lithology of a zone (i.e., sandstone, Assume: y = bottom hole temperature (BHT) = 250ᴼF
limestone, or dolomite). Porosity logs require a lithology or a matrix x = total depth (TD) = 15,000 ft
constant before the porosity (φ) of the zone can be calculated. The c = surface temperature = 70°F
formation factor (F), a variable used in the Archie water saturation Solve form (i.e. slope or temperature gradient) m = y – c / x
equation, also varies with lithology. As a consequence, the Therefore: m = 250ᴼ – 70ᴼ / 1500 ft m = 0.012ᴼ/ ft or 1.2ᴼ/100 f
calculated water saturation changes as F changes.

For example :Formation Temperature Calculation:

Formation Temperature Assume:
Formation temperature (Tf) is also important in log analysis, m = temperature gradient = 0.012ᴼ/ ft
because the resistivities of the drilling mud (Rm), the mud filtrate x = formation depth = 8,000 ft
(Rmf), and the formation water (Rw) vary with temperature. The c = surface temperature = 70ᴼ
temperature of a formation is determined by knowing: Remember: y = mx + c
• formation depth Therefore: y = (0.012) X (8,000)+ 70ᴼ = 166ᴼ formation temperature at
• bottom hole temperature (BHT) 8,000 ft
• total depth of the well (TD)
• surface temperature

Formation temperature can be obtained by graphical means

(assuming a linear geothermal gradient) or by calculation using the
linear regression equation.
Y=mx+c
where: x = depth Y = temperature m = Geothermal gradient c =
constant (surface temperature)
G.G = Bottom hole temperature (BHT) = surface temperature /
Total depth (TD)
Given:
Surface temperature = 80°F
Bottom hole temperature (BHT) = 200°F
Total depth (TD) = 10,000 ft
Formation depth = 7000 feet
Procedure:
1. Locate BHT (200°F) on the 80 scale (bottom of the chart;
mean surface temperature = 80°F).
2. Follow BHT (200°F) vertically up until it intersects the
10,000 ft (TD) line. This intersection defines the
temperature gradient.
3. Move parallel to the (diagonal) temperature gradient line
up to 7000 ft (formation depth).
4. Formation temperature (164°F) is read on the bottom
scale (i.e., 80 scale) vertically down from the point where
the 7000 ft line intersects the temperature gradient.

NOTE: In the United States (as an example), 80°F is used

commonly as the mean surface temperature in the southern
states, and 60°F is used commonly in the northern states.
However, a specific mean surface temperature can be
calculated if such precision is desired. Another source for
mean surface-temperature gradients is any world atlas with
such listings.
▪ After a formations' temperature is determined either by chart or
calculation, the resistivity of the different fluids (Rm, Rmf or Rw) can be Using a formation temperature of 166° and
corrected to formation temperature using chart which is used for
correcting fluid resistivities to the formation temperature. This chart is
assuming an Rw of 0.04 measured at 70°. The Rw
closely approximated by the Arp’s formula. at 166° will be:
Rw166 = 0.04 X (70+6.77)/(166 + 6.77)
Resistivity values of the drilling mud (Rm), mud filtrate (Rmf) and mudcake Rw166 = 0.018
(Rmc), and the temperature at which they are measured, are recorded on
the log's header.

The resistivity of a formation’s water (Rw) is obtained by analysis of

water samples from a drill stem test, a water-producing well, or from a
catalog of water resistivity values. Formation water resistivity (Rw) is
also determined from the spontaneous potential log, or it can be
calculated in water zones (i.e., where Sw =1) by the apparent water
resistivity (Rwa) method.

ARP’S FORMULA
• For constant solution –

RTF = Rtemp (Temp+6.77) / (Tf+6.77) (T in deg F)

RTF = Rtemp (Temp+21) / (Tf+21) (T in deg C)

where:
RTF = resistivity at formation temperature
Rtemp = resistivity at a temperature other than formation temperature
Temp = temperature at which resistivity was measured (usually Fahrenheit
for depth in feet, Celsius for depth in meters)
Tf = formation temperature (usually Fahrenheit for depth in feet, Celsius for
depth in meters)
Chart for adjusting fluid resistivities for temperature.
(Schlumberger, 1998, Figure Gen-9.)
Given: Resistivity of drilling mud ( Rm ) equals 1.2 ohm-m
at 75°F.
Formation temperature ( Tf ) = 160°F.
Procedure:
1. Locate the resistivity value, 1.2 ohm-m, on the scale at
the left of the chart.
2. Move to the right horizontally along the 1.2 ohm-m line
until the vertical line representing a temperature of
75°F (from the bottom of the chart) is encountered
(point A on the chart).
3. Move parallel to the (diagonal) constant salinity line to
where it intersects the vertical line representing a
temperature value of 160°F (point B on the chart).
4. From point B, follow the horizontal line to the left to
determine the resistivity of the fluid at the desired
temperature (0.58 ohm-m at 160°F).

• Each diagonal line on the chart shows the resistivity of

a solution of fixed concentration over a range of
temperatures.
• The diagonal lines at the bottom of the chart indicate
that an NaCl solution can hold no more than 250,000 to
300,000 ppm NaCl depending on temperature (i.e., the
solution is completely salt saturated)
• The Effect of Salt Composition.
The resistivity of the formation fluids depends upon the
concentration and type of salts dissolved in it. We know the
concentration and type of dissolved solids in the formation
water usually from chemical analysis of samples obtained by
the RFT. The resistivity of this solution at a given temperature
and pressure can be obtained by making up a synthetic brine
to the recipe indicated by the chemical analysis of the RFT
sample, or more often, by the use of equations relating the
composition to the fluid resistivity. For simplicity, we express
the dissolved salts in a solution as an NaCl equivalent.
Figure shows a chart expressing multipliers K as a function of
total concentration of solids for each individual ionic
contributor to the salts in solution. We simply multiply the
relevant multiplier by the solid concentration for each
component and sum the results. The sum is the total NaCl
equivalent concentration in ppm, and this can be used to
describe the concentration of the solution.

For example, a solution contains 20,000 ppm

NaCl, 10,000 ppm KCl and 1000 ppm MgSO4.
The multipliers are Na(1.00), Cl(1.00), K(0.9),
Mg(1.63), SO4(0.64).
Water resistivity controlled by
The total NaCl equivalent is – Ion concentrations
20,000´1+20,000´1+10,000´0.9+10,000´1+100 – What type of ions
0´1.63+1000´0.64 = 30,635 ppm NaCl. – What temperature
H, GEN-4; SLB, GEN-8
SLB, GEN-9 H, GEN 5
Notes:

1- The four most fundamental rock properties used in petrophysical logging are (1) porosity; (2) permeability; (3)
water saturation and (4) resistivity.
2- The Archie equation for water saturation is: Sw= (F x Rw/Rt) 1/n Sw = water saturation of uninvaded zone. F
= formation factor. Rw = formation water resistivity Rt = formation resistivity (uninvaded zone)
3- Where a porous and permeable formation is penetrated by the drill bit. the drilling mud invades the formation
as mud filtrate (Rmf).
4. The invasion of the porous and permeable formation by mud filtrate creates invasion zones (Rxo and Ri ) and
an uninvaded zone (Rt ). Reading resistivity logging tools provide information aboul the invaded and uninvaded
zones.
5. Lithology: The lithology of a formation must be known because: (1) porosity logs require a matrix value
sandstone, limestone, or dolomite in order to determine porosity ; (2) the formation factor varies with lithology;
(3) the variation in formation factor causes changes in water saturaiion values.
6. The four fluids that affect logging measurements are: (I) drilling mud. Rm; (2) mud filtrate. Rmf; (3) formation
water, Rw; and (4) hydrocarbons.
7. The resistivities of the drilling mud (Rm). mudcake (Rmc), mud filtrate (Rmf) and formation water (Rw) all vary
with changes in temperature. Consequently, a formations temperature (Tf) must be determined and all
resistivities corrected to Tf.
8. Clay content: (Rock may be clean or it may contain clay) Caly content affects the permeability and log
readings
9. Consolidation: A mechanical property in which reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of water under
static loads.