Chapter 2

Site Investigation
Site Investigation is the procedure of obtaining information about surface and sub-surface
conditions at the site of proposed construction.
Steps of Soil Exploration (Investigation)
• Planning of soil exploration program.
• Collection of soil samples.
• Conducting in-situ tests e.g. SPT.
• Collection of ground water sample.
• Conducting laboratory tests on soil and water sample as well if required.
• Preparation of drawing chart.
• Analysis of data collected.
• Preparation of site investigation report.
2.1 Objectives and methods of soil exploration
• To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure.
• To determine the bearing capacity of soil.
• To identify the ground water condition (i.e. it’s depth below G.L.)
• To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements of soil at different profile.
• To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining wall and abutments by knowing soil
parameter.
• To select suitable construction techniques.
• To predict and solve potential foundation problems like settlement, swelling, shrinkage
etc.
• To obtain representative sample of soil/rock for laboratory test.
• To conduct in-situ tests to assess appropriate soil characteristics, etc.
Stages of Site Investigation
1. Reconnaissance
2. Preliminary Exploration
3. Detailed Exploration
In Reconnaissance following features are to be obtained:
• General topography of the site.
• Existance of drainage, ditches, debris & sanitary fills etc.
• Evidence of landslides.
 • Stratification of soils as obtained from deep cuts near the site.
• Location of high flood marks.
• Depth of ground water table as observed in well.
• Existance of springs, swamps (water pockets) etc.
• Existing drainage pattern at the site.
• Vegetation types existing at the site.
• Existance of underground water pipes, sewer pipes etc. at the site.
In Preliminary Exploration: Depth, thickness, composition of each soil stratum, depth of bed
rock & W.T. etc. are to be determined.
In Detailed Exploration: Engineering properties of soil at different profile are to be obtained by
field or lab test and complete report is to be formed.
Methods of Soil Explorations
1. Direct Methods (IS 4453:2009)
a) Pits and trenches
b) Drifts and shafts
2. Boring
3. Indirect Methods
a) Sounding or Penetration tests
b) Geophysical methods
1. Direct Methods: Pits and Trenches
a) Pits are dug manually but mechanical equipment may also be used.
b) Pits are normally of the shape of an inverted frustum of pyramid.
c) The top of the pit is usually a square of size 3m x 3m and its bottom is also a square of
1.2m x 1.2m providing sufficient space.
d) Shallow pit (up to 3m) do not require lateral support.
e) For greater than 3m and GWT arises then lateral support in the form of sheeting and bracing
is required (generally in vertical trench)
Advantages of Test Pits:
a) The method is simple and fast.
b) Test pits are one of the most economical means of soil exploration to shallow depths.
c) Undisturbed samples can be collected with minimum disturbance.
d) It is possible to directly observe the soil profile and its variation in the vertical or lateral
direction by observing the walls of the test pit.
e) The presence of any lenses or pockets of weaker material can be readily identified.
 f) Test pits are particularly valuable in investigating the nature of fill material, where voids,
loosely deposited layers, or deleterious material can be readily recognized.
g) Test pits or trenches are the only reliable means of obtaining adequate information on a
filled ground or very variable natural deposits.
Direct Methods: Drift and Shaft
a) Drifts are the Horizontal tunnel made in the hillside to determine the nature and structure
of geological information. Drifts are also known as adits.
b) Shafts are large vertical holes made in geological formations.
c) Shafts may be rectangular or circular in section dimensions for shafts are 2.4 m and for
circular shaft diameter is 2.4 m

Figure 9 (a) Drift Figure 9 (b) Shaft

2. Boring: There are following methods of boring:

1. Auger Drilling
2. Wash Boring
3. Percussion Boring
4. Rotary Drilling
Auger Drilling / Boring
• Borehole advances by means of the rotation of auger and some downward pressure.
• Suitable in soft clay.
• Hand operated auger drilling is limited to 5 to 6m depth.
• Mechanical auger can drill up to 15m depth and more.
Large size mechanical auger mounted on truck & used to drill greater depth. (Refer Fig.10)
Wash Boring
• Casing is driven into ground up to a depth of 1.5 to 3m. By hammering.
• Soil inside it is taken out by means of chopping bit fastened on the lower end of wash
pipe that is inserted inside casing.
• Water is forced down the wash pipe and emerges with high velocity through a small
opening in the chopping bit.
• This action cuts the soil in fragments and soil water slurry comes up through the annular
space between wash pipes which also acts as a drill rod.
• A T-connection provided at top facilitates the collection of wash water in a sump made
nearby, which is again pumped through a hose in to the wash pipe to advance the bore
hole further. (Refer Figure 11)

Figure 10: Auger Boring (Source: Figure 11: Wash Boring

Foundation Engineering Poudel R.K)

Rotary Drilling (Refer Figure 12)

• Drilling progresses by downward pressure & rotation of drill bit at high speed (1 to 3
rotation per second)
• Soil and debries are excavated from hole in the same manner as in wash boring.
• Can be used in soil and in rock with changing drilling bit.
Types of drill bit
1. Drag bit – for shearing & scraping action of soil. e.g.
(i) Fish tail bit – for soft soil
(ii) Blade drag bit – for firm soil
 (iii) Carbide insert bit – for firm soil
2. Rock bits – used for rock. e.g.
(i) Non-coring bit (not for retrieving rock sample): tri-cone roller bit, diamond plug bit.
(ii) Coring bit (for retrieving rock sample): carbide insert coring bit, diamond coring bit.

Fig.12 Core Drilling (source: Foundation

Fig.13 Percussion Boring
Engg, RK Poudel)

Percussion Drilling/Boring (Refer Figure 13)

• Heavy drilling bit in the form of a chisel or a clay cutter is attached to the end of a cable
operated.
• The bit or cutter is raised or lowered in the borehole & water is added to the borehole to
break the soil.
• Broken materials are periodically removed from the borehole by using various drilling
tool. i.e. wash boring, clay cutter shell etc.
• Casing is driven by 180 kg weight.

3. Indirect Methods
a) Sounding or Penetration tests: SCPT, DCPT, describe in later sections.
b) Geophysical methods
Geophysical methods: There are two methods in geophysical:
 i. Electrical Resistivity method

ii. Seismic Refraction method

Electrical Resistivity method

• This method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the mean
resistivity of various soil.

• Resistivity is the resistance (ρ) between the opposite faces of a unit cube of the material.

• Significant variations in resistivity can be detected between different types of soil strata;
above and below the W.T.; between unfissured rocks and soils; between voids and
soil/rock etc.

• The apparent resistivity is the weighted average of true resistivity up to a depth ‘D’ in a
large volume of soil.

• The soil close to the surface being more heavily weighted than the soil at greater depth.

• If a stratum of low resistivity overlies a stratum of higher resistivity, the current is forced
to flow closer to the ground surface, resulting in a higher voltage drop and hence a higher
value of apparent resistivity and vice versa.

Electricity Resistivity (ρ) is given by relation:

 2𝜋𝐷𝐸
𝜌=
𝐼

Here, D is in cm, E is in Volts and I is in Ampere.

Resistivity Value (After Peck, et.al., 1974)
Materials Resistivity (Ohm-cm x 103
Clay and Saturated Silt 0 to 10
Sandy clay and wet silty sand 10 to 25
Clayey sand and saturated sand 25to 50
Sand 50 to 150
Gravel 150 to 500
Weathered rock 100 to 200
Sound rock 150 to 4000

Seismic Refraction method

• Seismic methods are based on the principle that the elastic shock waves have different
velocities in different materials.

• At interface of two different materials, the waves get partly reflected and partly refracted.

• This method consists of inducing impact or generating shock by exploding a small charge
at or near ground surface.

• The radiating shock waves are recorded by a device called Geophone which records the
time of travel of waves.

• The geophones are installed at suitable known distances (D1, D2 …) on the ground in a
line from the source of shock.

• Some of the waves travels directly from shock source along the ground surface in the
direction of geophone, called direct or primary waves.

• Others waves travel in a downward direction at various angles to the horizontal and will
be refracted if they pass into a stratum of different seismic velocity.

• If underlying layer is denser, the refracted waves travel much faster.

• As the distance between shock source and geophone increases, the refracted waves reach
the geophone earlier than direct waves

• This method enables the determination of general soil types, depth of boundaries of
soil/rock strata (D). In General,
 𝑑 𝑣 −𝑣
𝐷 = 𝑍 = 2 √(𝑣2 +𝑣1 ) where d is critical distance
2 1

According to IS 1892 – 1979,

Materials Wave Velocity (m/s)
Sandy and top soil 180 to 365
Sandy clay 365 to 580
Gravel 490 to 790
Glacial 550 to 2135
Rock Talus 400 to 760
Water in loose materials 1400 to 1830
Shale 790 to 3350
Sandstone 915 to 2740
Granite 3050 to 6100
Limestone 1830 to 6100

2.2 Soil Sampling, Types of Sample, Soil Sampler and its basic requirements
The representative soil obtained from the proposed depth of any site for the purpose of soil
investigation is known as Sample and the method of obtaining sample is called sampling.
Types of Sample: There are two types of sample namely:
1. Undisturbed sample and
2. Representative or Disturbed sample.
 3. Non-Representative Sample

Undisturbed sample: The soil sample, in which the particle size distribution as well as the soil
structure and the properties (like water content, density etc.) of the in situ stratum, remains
preserved, is termed as undisturbed soil samples. Such soil samples are required for shear
strength and consolidation test. For undisturbed sample the stress changes cannot be avoided.
The following requirements are looked for:
 No change due to disturbance of the soil structure,
 No change in void ratio and water content,
 No change in constituents and chemical properties.
This type of soil samples can be collected by stopping the boring process at a certain level and
then inserting the appropriate sampler below the bottom of the bore hole.

Representative or Disturbed sample: The soil sample which contains the same particle size
distribution as in the in situ stratum, but the natural structure of sample gets partly or entirely
disturbed and modified, is called a representative or disturbed soil sample.
The disturbances can be classified in following basic types:
 Change in the stress condition,
 Change in the water content and the void ratio,
 Disturbance of the soil structure,
 Chemical changes,
 Mixing and segregation of soil constituents
Causes of the disturbances
 Method of advancing the borehole,
 Mechanism used to advance the sampler,
 Dimension and type of sampler,
 Procedure followed in sampling and boring.
If all the constituents are present in the sample which represents the same soil type from any place,
then it is called a representive sample. In the remoulded sample the engineering properties get
changed due to remoulding.
Such a disturbed soil samples can be used for
 Identifying soil types
 Determining Atterberg’s limits, specific gravity, organic or carbonate content
determination and
 Compaction test etc.
Non-representative Soil Sample: These are mixtures of soil from different soil strata. These
samples are generally obtained by auger boring or sedimentation of wash boring. Such samples
may help in determining the depth at which major changes in soil profile occur.
Soil Sampler
The basic tool used for the collection of undisturbed soil samples from test pits or boreholes at
required depth is known as a soil sampler.
The fundamental requirement of a sampling tool is that when it is forced into the ground, it
should cause as little displacement, remolding, and disturbance to the soil as possible.

Basic requirements of sampler

The following design features of the sampling tool control the degree of disturbance:
1. Cutting edge.
2. Inside-wall friction.
3. Non-return valve.
4. Recovery ratio.
1. Cutting Edge:
Cutting edge is the beveled and sharp edge at the bottom of the soil sampler. It may be an
integral part of the soil sampler or a separate cutting bit may be screwed to the bottom of the
sampler. It mainly facilitates driving of the soil sampler through the soil.
A typical cutting edge shown in Fig. 16 should have the following design features:
i. Inside Clearance:
The internal diameter of the cutting edge (Dci) should be slightly less than the internal diameter
of the sampling tube (Dsi) to give inside clearance (Ci) (see Fig. 16).

Figure 16: Soil Sampler

The inside clearance does the following:

a. Allows for elastic expansion of the soil as it enters the sampler.
b. Reduces the frictional drag on the soil sample from the wall of the sampler, which otherwise
causes disturbance to the sample.
c. Helps to retain the soil sample.
Inside clearance is given by –
𝐷𝑠𝑖 − 𝐷𝑐𝑖
𝐶𝑖 = ∗ 100
𝐷𝑐𝑖
where Dsi is the inside diameter of the sampling tube and Dci is the inside diameter of the cutting
edge.
In general Ci lies in between 0.5 to 1%
ii. Outside Clearance:
Outside clearance (Co) is the gap between the outer surface of the cutting edge and the outside
surface of the sampling tube. Outside clearance prevents frictional drag between the outside
surface of the sampling tube and the walls of the borehole or and hence facilitates easy driving
and withdrawal of the sampler and also prevents damage of the sampler. The outside diameter of
the cutting edge should be slightly more than that of the sampling tube to get the outside
clearance.
Outside clearance is, therefore, defined by –
𝐷𝑐𝑜 − 𝐷𝑠𝑜
𝐶𝑜 = ∗ 100
𝐷𝑠𝑜
where Dco is the outside diameter of the cutting edge and Dso is the outside diameter of the
sampling tube. The outside clearance should not be much greater than the inside clearance.
iii. Area Ratio:
The outside clearance, the wall thickness of the sampler, and the inside clearance together
influence the displacement caused to the natural soil during collection of the soil sample. The
more the sum of these three, the greater will be the soil displacement and the more will be the
degree of disturbance caused to the soil sample. This is expressed in the form of area ratio (Ar)
and is defined as –
𝐷𝑐𝑜 2 − 𝐷𝑐𝑖 2
𝐴𝑟 = ∗ 100
𝐷𝑐𝑖 2
The area ratio should be kept as low as possible, consistent with the strength requirements of the
sampling tube as well as the inside and the outside clearance requirements. Its value should not
be greater than 20% for stiff formations and 10% for soft sensitive clays. Where it is not possible
to provide sufficient inside clearance, piston sampler should be preferably used.
2. Inside-Wall Friction:
The inside-wall friction should be minimized for minimizing the disturbance of the sample by
the following actions:
i. Provide suitable inside clearance.
ii. Provide a smooth finish to the sampling tube.
iii. Oil the inside surface of the sampling tube properly.
3. Non-Return Valve:
The valve should have a large orifice to allow air and water to escape quickly and easily when
driving the sampler.
4. Recovery Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of actual length of the sample within the sampling tube to the theoretical
length of sample (i.e. depth of penetration of the sampler during sampling). Thus, recovery ratio
(Rr) is expressed by –
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝐿𝑟 =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝐼𝑓 𝐿𝑟 = 1, 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)
𝐼𝑓 𝐿𝑟 > 1, 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝐼𝑓 𝐿𝑟 > 1, 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑
For satisfactory undisturbed sampling, when excess soil is prevented from entering the tube, the
recovery ratio should be between 96% and 98%.
5. Diameter of tube: The common diameter adopted in many countries is 75mm to 125mm.
Diameter less than 50mm is not recommended. The special diameter is 250mm.
6. Length of tube: Generally 8 to 12 times inside diameter of tube is adopted as a length of tube
(around 45 cm to 1m)
2.3 Planning of Exploration, number of bore holes and depth of exploration
Two Important Aspects of Planning
1. Depth and Exploration
2. Lateral extent of explorations
Depth of Exploration:
It depends upon followings:
• Type of structure
• Intensity of loading
• Shape and deposition of loaded area
• Soil Profile
 • Physical properties of soil
• The depth of exploration should be at least equal to the significant depth.
• The depth up to which the stress increment due to superimposed loads can produce significant
settlement and shear stress is known as significant depth.

SN Types of Foundation Depth of Exploration

1 Isolated Spread Footing 1.5B, Where B = Width of footing
2 Raft Foundation 1.5B, Where B = Width of Raft Foundation
3 Pile Foundation 1.5B, where B = Width of pile group
4 Adjacent footings with clear 1.5L, where L = Length of footing
spacing less than twice the width
5 Road cuts Equal to the bottom width of the cut.
6 Fill 2m below the existing/natural ground level or
equal to height of the fill whichever is hugher.
Lateral extent of explorations
Unit Number ‘or’ Spacing of Bore hole
Small and less important buildings 1 at the center
Compact Buildings (Covering an At least 5 (1 at center and 4 at corners)
area of 0.4 hectares)
 Large multi-storeyed Buildings At all important locations, Spacing should be 10 to
30 meters
Highways Along center line, Spacing should be 150m to 300m
Concrete dams Spacing generally varies between 40 to 80m

2.1 Field Penetration Test and their Suitability

Method of In-situ test
1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
2. Plate Load Test (PLT)
3. Cone Penetration Test
i) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
ii) Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)
4. Pile Load Test
5. Vane Shear Test

1. Standard Penetration Test

The standard penetration test is an in-situ test that is coming under the category of penetrometer
tests. The standard penetration tests are carried out in borehole. The test will measure the
resistance of the soil strata to the penetration undergone. A penetration emphirical correlation is
derived between the soil properties and the penetration resistance.

Tools

• Standard Split Spoon Sampler

• Drop Hammer weighing 65kg
• Guiding rod
• Drilling Rig.
• Driving head (anvil).

Procedure for SPT

• The test is conducted in a bore hole by means of a standard split spoon sampler. Once the
drilling is done to the desired depth, the drilling tool is removed and the sampler is placed
inside the bore hole.
 Fig.71 Standard Penetration Test
(source: Foundation Engineering,
RK Poudel)

• By means of a drop hammer of 65kg mass falling through a height of 750mm at the rate
of 30 blows per minute, the sampler is driven into the soil. This is as per IS -2131:1963.
• The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of 150mm is counted. Further
it is driven by 150 mm and the blows are counted.
• Similarly, the sampler is once again further driven by 150mm and the number of blows
recorded. The number of blows recorded for the first 150mm not taken into
consideration.. The number of blows recorded for last two 150mm intervals are added to
give the standard penetration number (N).
• If the number of blows for 150mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the test is
discontinued.

Correction for N Value

i. Overburden Pressure Correction

• From several investigations, it is proven that the penetration resistance or the value of N
is dependent on the overburden pressure. If there are two granular soils with relative
density same, higher ‘N’ value will be shown by the soil with higher confining pressure.
• With the increase in the depth of the soil, the confining pressure also increases. So the
value of ‘N’ at shallow depth and larger depths are underestimated and overestimated
respectively.
• Hence, to account this the value of ‘N’ obtained from the test are corrected to a standard
effective overburden pressure.
• The corrected value of Nc’ is
 • Nc’ = CN No

Here CN is the correction factor for the overburden pressure.

• CN = 0.77 log10(2000/po’) for po’ >25 KPa, No is observed N value for

ii. Dilatancy Correction

• Silty fine sands and fine sands below the water table develop pore water pressure which
is not easily dissipated. The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil and hence
the penetration number (N).
• Terzaghi and Peck (1967) recommend the following correction in the case of silty fine
sands when the observed value is N exceeds 15.
• The corrected penetration number,
• NC = 15 + 0.5 (Nc’ -15)
• Where Nc’ is the corrected N value after overburden pressure correction and NC is the
final corrected value of N
• If Nc’ less than or equal to 15, then Nc = Nc’

Fig.72 Correlation of allowable bearing pressure to

give 25mm settlement to SPT ‘N’ Value after
Terzaghi and Peck (1948)

Table 3 Consistency of soil based on N value

Table 4: Relative Density and angle of friction based on N value

2. Plate load test

Plate load test enables to estimate the allowable pressure of soil. The plates used in this particular
phenomenon are usually square or round and these plates vary in sizes from 30 to 75 cm width
and thickness about 2.5 cm.

Plate load test is most suited for sands and clay’s. In sand, they are usually carried out when the
project is big and large numbers of footings are available. In clay, where unconfined
compression tests are not feasible due to presence of fissures and cracks, plate load tests are used
to determine the ultimate bearing capacity.

Equipments:

• Test plate
• Hydraulic jack & pump
• Reaction beam or reaction truss
• Dial gauges with 25 mm travel, capable of measuring settlement to an accuracy of 0.01
mm.
• Pressure gauge
 • Loading columns
• Necessary equipment for loading platform.
• Tripod, Plumb bob, spirit level etc.

Df

Dp
Bp Fig.73 Plate Load Test and plot of result
Bf=5Bp

Procedure

1. The test pit is obtained by excavating soil and plate is to be placed on the central hole.
2. A seating load of 70 gm/cm2 is applied and released after some time.
3. The plate is loaded either through a kentledge or by the reaction through a truss or a beam.
4. The load to soil is applied in cumulative equal increments up to 1 kg/cm2 or one-fifth of the
estimated ultimate bearing capacity, whichever is less.
5. For each increment of load four dial gauges are on the plate to measure the settlement.
6. Settlements should. be observed for each increment of load after an interval of 1, 2.25, 4,
6.25, 9, 16 and 25 min and thereafter at hourly intervals to the nearest 0.02 mm.
7. Next higher load is applied when the rate of settlement of the plate becomes 0.25 mm per
hour.
8. The test is simultaneously carried out until failure or to a load two and half times the design
load, whichever is earlier.

Calculations

1. Load settlement curve is plotted as shown in figure to calculate bearing capacity and
settlement of foundation soil.
2. The ultimate bearing capacity of proposed foundation qu(f) can be obtained from the relation:
a) For clayey soil, 𝑞𝑢(𝑓) = 𝑞𝑢(𝑝)
 𝐵𝑓
b) For sandy soil, 𝑞𝑢(𝑓) = 𝑞𝑢(𝑝) ∗ 𝐵
𝑝

Where,

𝑞𝑢(𝑓) = 𝑈𝐵𝐶 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑞𝑢(𝑝) = UBC of plate obtained from plot

𝐵𝑓 = 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐵𝑝 = 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

3. Similarly, settlement of foundation (Sf) can be obtained from the relation:

a) For clayey soil,
𝐵𝑓
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆𝑝 ∗
𝐵𝑝
b) For sandy soil,
2
𝐵𝑓 (𝐵𝑝 + 0.3)
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆𝑝 ∗ [ ]
𝐵𝑝 (𝐵𝑓 + 0.3)

Where, 𝑆𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

4. Design of shallow foundation for an allowable settlement of foundation (Sf) can be obtained
by trial and error method.
𝑄
a) First, a value of Bf is assumed and load intensity (qo) is obtained by 𝑞𝑜 = 𝐴 , where Af
𝑓
is area of footing and Q is Load applied.
b) For above computed value of qo, Sp is determined from load settlement curve
(figure…)
c) Then Sf is computed by using aforementioned proper formula and Sf compared with
allowable settlement. The process is repeated till the computed value is equal the
allowable one.

Advantage of Plate Load Test (PLT)

1. It is a quick test and can be applied for all types of soil.

2. It is mainly suitable for those soil which cannot be carried to lab without disturbing.
3. In case of cohesive soil where UBC is independent of size of footing, PLT is applicable.

Limitations of PLT
a) In case of stratified deposit, the results of plate load test are misleading because the plate
load test provides strength and deformation characteristics of soils within the pressure bulb
of the plate only. Therefore, plate load test is not suited for stratified deposits.
b) Considering the time factor, the plate load test is a short duration test. Hence, it does not
provide the consolidation settlement characteristics of clay soil. The test provides only the
immediate settlement of the soil. Therefore, the results of load test are not reliable in clayey
soils.
c) If the position of Water table is close to the level of the foundation, the load test should be
conducted at the position of the water table. If it is carried out above the water table, it is
significantly affected by capillarity and buoyancy. The results of such test will be highly
misleading and provide unsafe design.
d) The test results are mainly applicable within a depth less than twice the width of bearing
plate or within the pressure bulb.
e) It is not accurate in case of cohesion-less soil as UBC of cohesion-less soil dependent on
size of plate.
f) The failure load is not well defined except in case of general shear failure.
g) It is difficult to test on plate size greater than 600mm width.

3. Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

Dynamic cone penetration test or DCPT is a quick, simple and low cost test which is extensively
used by many agencies around the globe to measure the strength of compacted material of
unbound granular and sub grade layers with reasonable accuracy.

Objectives:

• To control quality of construction

 • To determine in situ CBR value
• To evaluate quality of flexible pavement

Principle of DCPT

• The basic principle involved in the operation of this apparatus is the measuring of the
resistance offered by the pavement layers to the penetration of a standard cone with a
diameter of 20 mm (with 600 apex angle) driven by an 8 kg hammer freely falling
through a height of 575 mm. the amount of penetration (in mm) of the cone is generally
reported in terms of the average penetration per blow, DCPI60 (mm/blow).
• Note: Greater the value of DCPI60 indicates a softer material and vice versa.

Calculation of CBR Value from DCPT Result

Procedure:

• Record the initial reading on the dynamic cone penetrometer scale.

• Calculate the value of penetration (in mm) for each blow by subtracting the previous
recorded reading (i.e. reading on scale) from the current reading.
• Calculate the cumulative depth of penetration (in mm) for each blow by adding all the
previous individual depth of penetrations.
• Draw a chart using the data of cumulative depth of penetration and number of blows.
• This step is about identifying the depth of each layer. Identify the slope change of the
penetration curve. Every change in slope represents a change in layer type.
• After identifying each slope change, calculate the average penetration/blow for each slope
change and calculate the thickness of each layer.
• Use the following equation and determine the corresponding CBR value of each layer.

log10CBR = 2.48 – 1.057 log10(DCPI60)

 Fig.74 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
and plot of test result (source: google
search)

4. Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)

• The static cone penetration test is also known as the Dutch cone test. This test is standardized
by, “IS 4968 Part III-1976– Method for subsurface sounding for soils- Part III static cone
penetration test”.
• The static cone penetration test is a type of cone penetration test in which cone is used to
penetrate the ground surface. In SCPT, we do not apply any hammer blow as in DCPT.
• We push the hammer into the soil at a particular rate of 1 cm/sec. In the case of SCPT, we
will be measuring continuous data so we will get continuous measurements of the resistance
to penetration of the cone and a surface sleeve.
• The static cone penetration test is done with the help of static cone penetrometer. Static cone
penetrometer consists of a steel cone, a friction jacket, sounding rod, mantle tube, a driving
mechanism and measuring equipment.

Equipment Details

• The cone has an apex angle of 60º±15’ and an overall base diameter of 35.7 mm and gives a
cross-sectional area of 10 mm².
• The friction sleeve has an area of 150 cm² as per standard practice.
• The sounding road is a steel rod. It has a diameter of 15 mm which can be extended with
additional rods of 1m length each so you can conduct the test for up to the required length.
• For manual operation, the driving mechanism must have a capacity of 20 to 30 KN and for
mechanical operation, the driving mechanism must have a capacity of 100 KN.

Principle of SCPT

• A static cone penetration test involves the penetration of a cone inside the ground and
measures the cone resistance, friction resistance, friction ratio and pore water pressure.

Apparatus required

• A steel cone
• A friction jacket
• Sounding rod
• Mantle tube
• A driving mechanism
• Measuring equipment

Procedure (Steps)

1. The cone and friction jacket assembly is put vertically touching the ground.
2. The cone is then pushed down at a constant speed of penetration ranging from 1.5 to 2.4
cm/sec to a depth of 40mm. Then cone tip resistance (qc) is recorded.
3. Now the sounding rod is pushed further to a depth 40mm and sleeve friction (qf) is recorded.
4. Then, the mantle tube is pushed down to a total 40 + 40 = 80mm depth. This operation
brings the cone and jacket assembly to first step.
𝑞
5. Then the friction ratio is calculated using the formula: 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑞𝑓
𝑐

Calculations
𝑞𝑐 −𝜎𝑣
a) In clayey soil, 𝑐𝑢 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑁𝑘
𝑐𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝑞𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑁𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (15 𝑡𝑜 20),

𝑁𝑘 = 15 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑁𝑘 = 20 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑞
𝑏) 𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑, ∅ = tan−1 [0.1 + 0.38 log ( 𝑐⁄𝜎 ′ )]
𝑣

Here, φ is friction angle, qc is cone resistance and σv’ is vertical effective overburden pressure.

Advantages

• SCPT is a simple and rapid test.

• This test is economical to perform.
• This test helps to identify the problem of soils.
• This test provides us with detailed and precise data.
• This test helps us with real-time measurement.

Disadvantages

• The soil sample is not obtained in this test.

• The depth till which we can carry out the test is limited.
• The cone cannot be penetrated through the graveled surface.
• This test requires special equipment and skilled labor.
2.5 Methods of boring: Refer clause 2.1 of this section.

2.6 Groundwater Observation

Determination of the location of ground water is an essential part of every exploratory

programme. Ordinarily, it is measured in the exploratory borings; however, it may sometimes
become necessary to make borings purely for this purpose, when artesian or perched ground
water is expected, or the use of drilling mud obscures ground water. A correct indication of the
general ground water level is found by allowing the water in the boring to reach an equilibrium
level. In sandy soils, the level gets stabilized very quickly within a few hours at the most. In
clayey soils it will take many days for this purpose. Hence, standpipes or piezometers are used in
clays and silt. A piezometer is an open-ended tube (may be about 50 mm in diameter) perforated
at its end. The tube is packed around with gravel and sealed in position with puddle clay.
Observations must be taken for several weeks until the water level gets stabilized. The
arrangement is shown in figure below:
In the case of impermeable clays, pressure measuring devices are used. The elevation of ground
water table affects the design of the foundation, since the bearing capacity and a few other
engineering properties of the soil strata depend upon

2.7 Bore hole logs

A record, made by the driller or geotechnical engineer, of the rocks or soil penetrated in the
borehole. In the laboratory, a more detailed log is prepared giving particulars relating to
lithology, paleontology, water analysis, etc.

Fig.75 Model of Bore hole log

2.8 Site Investigation Report

Soil investigation report should be presented upon the completion of a soil exploration program.

• The report should include the scope of investigation, description of the proposed
structure, and general site conditions.
• The report should present the general description of soil strata, position of ground water
table and other information pertinent to the site.
• The detail of field exploration should include the number of borings, lay-out and depth of
boring, type of boring and other specifications of field test conducted during the
exploration.
• It should contain the data obtained from boreholes, site observations and laboratory
results.
• It should give the recommendation about the suitable types of foundation, allowable
bearing capacity, expected settlement, liquefaction potentiality and some remedial
measures towards the arised problem if any.