GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | SAFEERA.
T ,LECTURER CE,MJPC
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING DEPTH OF EXPLORATION
4th module
The depth of exploration required at a
SITE INVESTIGATION particular site depends upon the degree of
• To select the type and depth of foundation for a variation of the data in subsurface the
given structure. horizontal and vertical directions.
• To determine the bearing capacity of soil. IS 1892 1972 suggests that the minimum
• To estimate the probable maximum and depth of boring should be 1.5 B when A ≥
differential settlement. 4B; and it should he 1.5 L when A < 2B. For
• To establish the ground water level. adjacent rows of such footings. the
• To predict the lateral earth pressure against minimum recommended depth of
retaining walls and abutments. exploration is 4.5 B when A < 2B; it is 3.5 B
• To select suitable construction techniques. when A> 2B and it is 1.5B when A ≥4B.
• To predict and solve potential foundation NUMBER & POSITION OF PITS & BORING
problems. For small & less important buildings, even
• To ascertain the suitability of soil as a construction one bore hole or a trial pit in the centre
material. may suffice. But for compact buildings,
covering an area of about 0.4 hectare,
DIFFERENT STAGES OF SITE there should be at least 5 bore holes, one
INVESTIGATION. at the centre & four near the corners.
1. Site reconnaissance
2. Preliminary exploration
3. Detailed exploration
Reconnaissance is the first step which
includes a visit to the site and study of maps and
other relevant records. It helps in deciding future
programme of site investigations, scope of work,
method of exploration to be adopted, types of
samples to be taken and in-situ testing
Preliminary exploration is to determine the For large, multi storeyed buildings, the
depth, thickness, extent and composition of each bore holes should be drilled at all the
soil stratum at the site. Depth of the bed rock and corners & also at important locations. The
ground water table is also determined. Preliminary spacing between the bore holes is
explorations are generally in the form of few generally kept between 10 to 30m,
borings or test pits. Tests are conducted with cone depending upon the variation in the
penetrometers and sounding rods to obtain subsurface conditions & loading. Tor
information about strength and compressibility of highways, subsurface explorations are
soils. usually carried out along the proposed
Detailed explorations are done to centre line or along the propose ditch line.
determine the engineering properties of soils in The spacing of bore holes usually varies
different strata. It includes an extensive boring between 150 & 300m. If the sub-strata is
programme, sampling and testing of samples in erratic, the spacing may be reduced to
laboratory. Fields tests are conducted in order to even 30m. In case of concrete dams, the
determine the soil properties in its natural state. spacing of bore holes generally varies
between 40 and 80 m.
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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | SAFEERA.T ,LECTURER CE,MJPC
• In this method a cutter bit or a core barrel with a
METHODS OF THE EXPLORATIONS coring bit attached to the lower end of drill
The various methods of the explorations may berods is rotated by a power rig.
grouped as follows: • The bit cuts, chips and grinds the material into
1. Open excavations small pieces.
2. Borings • The material is then taken out by pumping water
3. Geophysical methods. or drilling mud through the hollow drilling
1. Open excavations rod. greater depths.
• Test pits and trenches can be used for all types of• Boring is done by pressing the auger into the
soils. ground and rotating it with the handle at the top.
• Soils can be inspected in their natural condition • As soon as the auger is filled with soil, it
and samples, disturbed or undisturbed can be is taken out and soil is removed from the
conveniently taken. blades. Samples obtained are disturbed
• The cost of open excavations, however, increases samples.
rapidly with depth.
• They are generally considered suitable for shallow Wash boring
depths (say upto 3 m). For greater depths (over 6 m) • It is a fast and simple method for
and below ground water table, specially in pervious advancing holes in soils.
soils, measures for lateral support and ground water • In wash boring, the hole is advanced to a
lowering become necessary. short depth by auger and then a casing pipe
2. Borings is driven in the ground to prevent the sides
• The methods of boring or drilling are: of the bore hole from caving in.
1. Auger boring • Boring is continued by using chopping bit
2. Wash boring fixed at the end of a hollow drill rod. Water
3. Percussion boring is forced under pressure through the drill
4. Rotary boring rod which is alternatively raised and
5. Core drilling dropped, and also rotated.
Auger boring • Due to its jetting and chopping action soil
is loosened. The loosened soil is forced up-
to the ground surface in the form of soil
water slurry through the annular space
between the drill rod and the casing.
• Soil auger is a device that helps in advancing a
bore-hole into the ground.
• These are used is cohesive and other soft soil
above water table.
Percussion drilling
• Hand operated augers are used up-to a maximum
• In this method, soil is loossened by
depth of 10 m and power driven augers are used for
repeated blows of a heavy drilling bit.
Rotary drilling
• The bit is attached to the end of a drilling
• Rotary boring is used for soil exploration work
rod and is raised and dropped alternately in
only when deep bore holes are required in
the bore hole. Water is added to facilitate
difficult formations with boulders and fractured
the breaking of the soil.
rock or water logged sand.
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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | SAFEERA.T ,LECTURER CE,MJPC
• The slurry formed at the bottom of the hole is • The two outer electrodes are known as
removed by means of bailers or sand pumps. current electrodes. The two inner electrodes
• This method is suitable for boring in rocks and are called potential electrodes.
hard soil. • The mean resistivity of the strata is
Core drilling determined by applying a D.C. current to
• Core drilling method is used for drilling holes the outer electrodes and by measuring the
and for obtaining rock cores. voltage drop between the inner electrodes.
• In this method, a core barrel fitted with a drilling
bit is fixed to a hollow drilling rod. As the TYPES OF SOIL SAMPLES
drilling rod is rotated, the bit advances and cuts an • Disturbed samples are the samples in
annular hole around an intact core. which the natural structure of the soil gets
• The core is then removed form its bottom and is disturbed
retained by a core lifter and brought to the during sampling. But these samples
surface. represent the composition and the mineral
• Water is pumped continuously to keep the content of the soil.
drilling bit cool. • Disturbed samples can be used to
3. Geophysical methods. determine the index properties of soil.
There are two geophysical methods • Undisturbed samples are the samples in
1.Seismic refraction method which the natural structure of the soil and
2.Electrical resistivity method the water content are retained.
• It is impossible to get truly undisturbed
Seismic refraction method samples, as some disturbance is inevitable
• The seismic methods are based on the principle during sampling.
that the elastic shock waves have different • Undisturbed samples are used for
velocities in different materials. determining the engineering properties of
• At the interface of two different materials, the soil, such as compressibility, shear strength
waves get partly reflected and partly refracted. and permeability.
• Seismic methods of subsurface explorations • The smaller the disturbance, greater
generally utilise the refracted waves. would be the reliability of the results
• The shock wave is created by a hammer blow or
by a small explosive charge at a point P . BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL
• The shock wave travels through the top layer of Ultimate bearing capacity (qᵤ)
the soil (or rock) with a velocity V1 depending The maximum vertical pressure
upon the type of material in layer-I. The observation that can be applied to the ground surface, at
of the arrival of the waves is recorded by geophones which point a shear failure mechanism
located at various points, such as A, B, C. develops in the supporting soil.
• The geophones convert the ground vibration into
electrical impulses and transmit them to a Net ultimate bearing capacity (qₙᵤ): this is
recording . the ultimate bearing capacity minus the
Electrical resistivity method weight of soil (𝝲) multiplied by the depth of
• The electrical resistivity method is based on the the foundation (D). The formula is
measurement and recording of changes in the qₙᵤ = qᵤ - 𝝲Df
mean resistivity of various soils. Net safe bearing capacity (qₙₛ): the
• Four electrodes are used at a constant spacing ‘D’. allowable bearing capacity (qₙₛ) is the net
To conduct the lest, four electrodes, which ultimate bearing capacity (qₙᵤ) divided by a
are usually in the form of metal spikes, are driven factor a safety (typically this will be 3). The
into the ground. formula is qₙₛ = qₙᵤ / F. The factor may be
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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | SAFEERA.T ,LECTURER CE,MJPC
increased to limit settlements further if DETERMINATION OF BEARING
required. CAPACITY
Gross safe bearing capacity (qₛ): dividing 1. Plate load test
the ultimate bearing capacity by a factor of 2. Standard penetration test
safety gives you the gross safe bearing
capacity (qₛ = qᵤ / F). PLATE LOAD TEST
Net safe settlement pressure (qₙₚ): the Plate load test is done at site to determine
maximum load the soil can take before it the ultimate bearing capacity and
exceeds the allowable amount of soil settlement of foundation under the loads for
settlement. clayey and sandy soils. So, plate load test is
Net allowable bearing capacity (qₙₐ): this is helpful for the selection and design the
the value used in the design of foundations foundation. To calculate safe bearing
and is often simply referred to as the capacity suitable factor of safety
‘allowable bearing capacity’. is applied.
Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity A pit is excavated in the ground at which
• Assumptions in Equation foundation is to be laid. The size of pit is
1. The soil is semi-infinite, homogeneous, and generally 5 times the size of the plate. The
isotropic. depth excavated should be equal to
2. The problem is studied in two-dimensional. proposed foundation depth. The plate used
3. The base of the footing is rough. is made of mild steel. It may be square
4. The ground surface is horizontal. (0.3m x 0.3m) or circular (0.3m diameter)
5. The failure is studied as a general shear with 25mm thickness. After excavation of
failure. pit, at center of excavated pit steel plate
6. The load acting on the footing is vertical sized hole is excavated and the plate is
and symmetrical. arranged in it.
7. The overburden pressure at the foundation
level is equivalent to the surcharge load
calculated as qo = γDf, Where γ is the
effective unit weight of the soil, and Df is
8. the depth of the foundation less than the
width of the foundation.
9. The principle of superposition can be
applied.
10. Coulomb law, i.e. σ = C + σ tan ф; is
employed. After arranging the plate in central hole
11. Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Equation hydraulic jack is arranged on top of plate to
The Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation is apply load. Reaction beam or reaction
given by: trusses is provided for the hydraulic jack to
qu = CNc + γ1DfNq + 0.5Bγ2Nγ take up the reaction. Otherwise, a loaded
In the above equation, and as per Fig.1, platform is created (using sand b and
qu= Ultimate Bearing Capacity of the soil provided the reaction. After that seating
C= Cohesion load is applied to set the plate and released
γ1,γ2= Unit weight of the soil above and after some time. Now load is applied with
below the footing level an increment of 20% of safe load. Dial
Nc,Nq, Nγ= Bearing capacity factors that gauges are arranged at bottom to record the
are a function of friction angle settlement values. At 1min, 5min, 10min,
Df= Depth of the foundation below the 20min, 40min, and 60min and after that for
ground level
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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | SAFEERA.T ,LECTURER CE,MJPC
every one observed and noted. The number of spread footings in one line. A
observations are made until the total strip footing is also known as continuous
settlement of 25mm has occurred. The load footing.
-settlement curve is plot calculated.
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
to determine the unconfined compressive
strength of cohesive soils.
1.The standard penetration test is
conducted in a box hole using a standard 2. Spread or Isolated Footing or Individual
split spoon sampler. Footing
2. When the bore hole has been drilled to A spread footing also called as isolated
the desired footing, pad footing and individual footing
3. sampler is driven into the soil by a drop it is provided to support an individual
depth, the driling tools are removed & the column.
sampler is lowered to the bottom of the A spread footing is circular, square or
hole. hammer of 63.5 kg mass falling rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
through a height of 750 mm at the rate of Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to
30 blows per minute. spread the load over a large area.
4.The no. of hammer blows required to
drive 150 mm of the sample is counted. 6 4.
5.The sampler is further driven by 150 mm
& the no. Of blows recorded.
6. The no. Of blows recorded for the first
150 mm is 6 disregarded.
7.The no. Of blows recorded for the last
two 150 mm intervals are added to give the
standard penetration number (N).
If the no. Of blows for 150 mm drive 3. Combined Footing
exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal & the test • A combined footing supports two columns.
is discontinued. • It is used when the two columns are so close
TYPES OF FOUNDATION to each other that their individual footings
1. Shallow foundation would overlap.
2. Deep foundation • By combining it with that of an interior
Shallow: According to Terzaghi,depth column, the load is evenly distributed.
equal to or less than width –shallow • A combined footing may be rectangular or
Transmit loads at a shallow depth trapezoidal in plan.
Deep :Load transmitted at a considerable
depth below G.L
Shallow foundation types
1. Strip footing
• It is provided for a load-bearing wall.
• provided for a row of columns which are so
closely spaced that their spread footings
overlap or nearly touch each other.
• In such a case, it is more economical to
provide a strip footing than to provide a
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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | SAFEERA.T ,LECTURER CE,MJPC
• Soil excavation is not possible(soil
condition)
4.Strap or Cantilever Footing classification
A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two Based on mode of transfer load
isolated footings connected with a structural strap End bearing piles:pile end portion at b/w weak
or a lever. soil and strong soil
The strap connects the two footings such that they Friction piles –using friction & using full length
behave as one unit. The strap is designed as a rigid of pile
beam. Combined end bearing & friction piles
a strap footing is more economical than a combined Based on mode on method of installation
footing when the allowable soil pressure is Driven piles-applying blows of a heavy
relatively high and the distance between the hammer
columns is large. Driven & cast in situ piles-using a casing with
bottom end closed(filled with concrete)
Bored & cast in situ piles-excavating holes &
fill with concrete
Screw piles-screwed into soil
Jacked piles-hydraulic jack
7.well foundation
5.Mat or Raft Foundation
A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a
number of columns and walls under the entire
structure or a large part of the structure.
A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure 1.Well Curb
is low or where the columns and walls are so close • The well curb is designed for supporting
that individual footings would overlap or nearly the weight of the well with partial support
touch each other at the bottom of the cutting edge, i.e. when
6.pile foundation only part of the cutting edge is in contact
A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong with soil and the remaining portion is only
material such as concrete that is pushed into the held by skin friction.
ground to act as a steady support for structures built 2. Cutting Edge
on top of it. • The cutting edge should have as sharp an
Necessity of pile foundation angle as practicable for knifing into the soil
• When ground water table is high without making it too weak to resist the
• Heavy and non uniform loads from various stresses induced by boulders,
superstructure are imposed blows, blasting, etc.
• Other types are costlier or not feasible 3. Steining Thickness
• When possibility of scouring (location near The thickness of steining is designed in such a
to river bed way that at all stages the well can be sunk under
• When soil at shallow depth is compressible its own weight, as the need for weighting with
• Canal or deep drainage system is near the kentledge takes time and retards progress
structure considerably
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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING | SAFEERA.T ,LECTURER CE,MJPC
4. Skin Friction
• The unit skin friction increases with depth,
and at a given depth, the skin friction is
equal to the coefficient of friction it times
the lateral earth pressure.
• However, it is not possible to evaluate the 1 2
skin friction from laboratory tests as the
lateral earth pressure depends upon a state
of stress.
5. Bottom Plug
• The bottom plug of concrete to be designed
for an upward load equal to the soil 3 4
pressure (including the pore pressure)
minus self-weight of bottom plug and
filling.
Types of shapes of well foundation.
1. single Circular well
They require only one dredger for sinking.
As every point on the cutting edge is at a 5
constant distance from the center of the
dredge hole, the chances of tilting of wells
during sinking are less. Circular wells can
be used for piers of single-line railway or
road bridges
2. Twin Circular well
In this case, two independent circular wells
placed very close to each other and having
a common well cap. The wells are sunk
simultaneously. Twin-circular wells are
commonly used where the length of the pier
is considerable, which can not be
accommodated on a double-D or double-
octagonal well
3. Dumb Well
4. Double-D Well
Double-D shape wells are an improvement
over twin rectangular and twin circular
wells and have two dredge holes each in the
shape of the letter D
5.Twin-Hexanol Well
These wells are considered to be better than
Double-D wells in numerous aspects. Most
preferably the square corners are
eliminated such that bending stresses are
reduced considerably.
