MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Autonomous Institution)

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 01
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL V / III

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture: Methods of exploration

Introduction:
Soil investigation and soil explorations are conducted for the purpose of site investigation
to get clear information about the soil properties and hydrological conditions at the site.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Basics of soil mechanics
 Site investigation
 Soil properties
 Soil mechanics
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Purpose of Soil Exploration
The purpose of site exploration is to get detailed information about
 Order of occurrences and extent of soil and rock strata.
 Nature and engineering properties of of the soil and rock formation.
 Location of groundwater and its variation.
Methods of Soil Exploration
Different methods of soil exploration for study of soil profiles are:
1. Open excavation
2. Borings
3. Subsurface soundings
4. Geographical methods
 1. Open Excavation
A pit, eventually, can be excavated for exploring shallower depths, say of the order of 2 to
5 m, or so. Such a pit can be easily excavated at the proposed construction site, if the soil
has a bit of cohesion, and the soil samples can be lifted from such different depths, besides
making the easy visualization and examination of the different strata. Even undisturbed
soil samples can be lifted from such a pit by a process called chunk sampling.
2. Boring Method
Soil samples can be lifted from deeper depths by drilling bore holes by using mechanical
devices called samplers.The process consists of
 Drilling a hole and visually examining the cuttings coming out from different depths
 Lifting the soil samples from different depths by using mechanical devices called
samplers.
Methods of boring
(i) Auger boring
(ii) Auger and Shell boring
(iii) Wash boring
(iv) Percussion boring
(v) Rotary boring (Mud rotary drilling)
3. Subsurface Sounding Tests
These tests are carried out to measure the resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon, a
cone or other shaped tools under dynamic or static loading. These tests are used for
exploration of erratic solid profiles for finding depth to bedrock or stratum and to get
approximate indication of the strength and other properties of soil.
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 Cone penetration test or Dutch cone test
4. Geographical Methods of Soil Exploration
(i) Electrical resistivity method
This method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the mean resistivity
or apparent specific resistance of various soils. The test is done by driving four metal
spikes to act as electrodes into the ground along a straight line at equal distances. This is
shown in the figure. Direct voltage is applied between the two outer potentiometer
electrodes and then mean for the potential drop between the inner electrodes is calculated.
Mean resistivity (ohm-cm) ρ = 2πDR
Where D= distance between the electrodes (cm)
 E= potential drop between outer electrodes (volts)
I= current flowing between outer electrodes (amperes)
R= resistance (ohms) = (E/I)

Resistivity mapping: This method is used to find out the horizontal changes in the sub
soil, the electrodes kept at a constant spacing, are moved as a group along the line of tests.
Resistivity sounding: This method is used to study the vertical changes; the electrode
system is expanded, about a fixed central point by increasing the spacing gradually from
an initial small value to a distance roughly equal to the depth of exploration desired.
(ii) Seismic refraction method
This method is very fast and reliable in establishing profiles of different strata, provided
the deeper layers have increasingly greater density, higher velocities and greater thickness.

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HDAll-JmCy8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50rT6FJa9gI
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 862 to 872 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 74 to 77 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 02
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Boring Technology

Introduction:
 Boring methods are widely used for subsurface investigations to collect samples, in almost
all types of soil, for visual inspection or laboratory testing.
 There are several boring techniques like auger boring, auger and shell boring, wash
boring, percussion drilling and rotary drilling, that are employed to collect disturbed and
undisturbed samples of soils.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Site investigation
 Methods of exploration
 Test on soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:
These boring methods are selected based on the soil types, the efficiency of boring
technique, types of soil sample (disturbed or undisturbed), and the availability of facility
and accuracy by which soil and groundwater variations can be determined.
Methods of boring
1. Auger boring
2. Auger and Shell boring
3. Wash boring
4. Percussion boring
5. Rotary boring (Mud rotary drilling)
1. Auger Boring
It is a simple and cost-effective boring technique which can be used for almost all types of
soil apart from gravelly soil and rocks. This technique encounters difficulty in gravelly soil
and special drilling bits are needed for rocks.Auger boring is used to collect disturbed soil
specimen. It collects the soil sample from a maximum practical depth of nearly 35m based
on the available time and equipment type.
2. Auger and Shell boring
Cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge or teeth at Iower end can be used for
making deep borings. Hand operated rigs are used for depths upto 25 m and mechanised
rigs up to 50 m. Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells for very stiff and hard
clays, and shells or sand pumps for sandy soils. Small boulders, thin soft strata or rock or
cemented gravel can be broken by chisel bits attached to drill rods. The hole usually
requires a casing.
3. Rotary Drilling
Rotary drilling method of boring is suitable for all types of soil including rocks. It is used
to take disturbed as well as undisturbed soil sample. So, it is specifically applicable for stiff
soil layers. The practical depth of sampling is around 70m and greater depth based on the
type of utilized equipment.
Generally, thin-walled tube samplers and various piston samplers are used to collect
undisturbed soil specimen. The diameter of the undisturbed soil sample is around 100 mm
and ranges from 150mm to 200mm for rocks.

Auger BoringAuger and Shell boringRotary Drilling

4. Wash Boring
Wash boring method is used to collect disturbed and undisturbed samples in almost all
types of soils except rocks. In this technique, portable, cheap, and limited equipment is
used which is an advantage of wash boring. Similar to rotary drilling, thin-walled tube
 samplers and piston samplers are used to recover undisturbed soil samples with
minimum 50 mm diameter and maximum 100 mm diameter.
5. Percussion Drilling
It is used for all types of soils and rocks including stiff soils and rocks. Percussion drilling
is used to take disturbed and undisturbed specimen but the quality of undisturbed
samples is not that good because of the heavy blows of the chisel.
Similar to rotary drilling and wash boring, the soil specimen can be taken from a depth of
70m and more based on the utilized equipment. The diameter of disturbed soil samples is
about 100 mm and greater, and obtaining smaller diameter samples would be
uneconomical.

Wash BoringPercussion Drilling

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50rT6FJa9gI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HDAll-JmCy8
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 862 to 872 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 77 to 80 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 03
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Depth of boring

Introduction:
The depth of soil affected by the load transmitted by the foundation determines the
required depth of boring in the overall process. The additional stresses imposed by the
foundation to a depth of one and half times the total width of foundation is still found to
be about 20% below the foundation base.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Site investigation
 Methods of exploration
 Methods of boring
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Significant Depth of Boring
Exploration should be carried to a depth up to which the increase in pressure due to
structural loading is likely to cause perceptible settlement or shear failure.
Depth of boring Depends upon
 Type of structure
 Intensity of Loading
 Soil profile
 Physical characteristics of soil
Should extend up to the significant depth below the baseof the foundation
DB Df + 2B for square / circular footings
 Df + 6B for strip / continuous footings
In the case of pile foundations,
DBlength of pile + significant depth below
the base of the pile group.
Df – Depth of footing
B – Width of footing
DEPTH OF EXPLORATION

FOUNDTION TYPE DEPTH

General 1.5 to 2 times of loaded area

Pile Foundation 10 to 30 metres or more

Retaining Wall 1.5 times of base width (or)

1.5 times of height of the wall

Dams 1.5 times of base width (or) up to bed rock

Roads(cuts & Fills) 1 metre for little cut or fill (or)

2 metres below the ground or equal to the
ht. of the fill or cut

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://civilblog.org/2015/09/25/how-to-decide-depth-and-spacing-of-trial-pits-and-boring/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gaRx1FCy8eI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ozWwrK_Z0A
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 859 to 862 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 73 to 74 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 04
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Spacing Of Bore Hole

Introduction:
The position and depth of exploration and investigation has to be selected based on
previously conducted exploration such as geological conditions, structure dimensions and
the character of the engineering problem, foundation depth etc.,
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Site investigation
 Depth of boring
 Methods of boring
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Spacing of borings

FOUNDTION TYPE DEPTH

General 1.5 to 2 times of loaded area

Pile Foundation 10 to 30 metres or more

Retaining Wall 1.5 times of base width (or)

1.5 times of height of the wall

Dams 1.5 times of base width (or) up to bed rock

Roads(cuts & Fills) 1 metre for little cut or fill (or)

2 metres below the ground or equal to the

ht. of the fill or cut
For Smaller Buildings
1 bore hole or test pit in the centre of the site.
For Larger Buildings
1 bore hole at each corner and 1 in centre.
For Very Larger Buildings
Areas should be divided in a grid pattern and borings are carried out at every 100 metre
depends upon the soil.
For Dam Sites
Borings are made at the intervals of 50 m spacing along the upstream.
For Roads
Generally at the intervals of every 100 m, for uniform soil it is increased to every 500 m
and it is decreased to 30 m for non uniform soil.
 The depth and spacing of trial pits or exploratory borings should be such as to give a true
picture of the underlying soil, with regard to any major changes in thickness, depth or
properties of the strata over the base area of the structure and in its immediate vicinity.
 Only a preliminary estimate of spacing is made first. This may be decreased or increased
depending upon the information revealed by borings.When the bed rock is met, the
surface should be plotted by a number of borings or surroundings in order to locate any
depressions.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://civilblog.org/2015/09/25/how-to-decide-depth-and-spacing-of-trial-pits-and-boring/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3i3RlaDt8c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7EQGeH9K-VI
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no –860 to 861 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 73 to 74 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 05
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Sampling – Methods -Thick, Thin wall samplers, Stationery piston sampler
Introduction:
Soil samples are obtained by
 Driving or pushing a sampling tube into the ground.
 An open ended cylindrical tube is known as sampling tube.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Methods of boring
 Site investigation
 Depth of boring
Detailed content of the Lecture:

Types of Samples

Un disturbed Soil
Disturbed Soil Samples
Samples

Representative Soil Non representative Soil

Samples Samples

DISTURBED SAMPLES:- Soil samples in which the natural water content or structure gets
modified or destroyed is known as disturbed samples.
NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES: Mixture of soils from different layers/levelscomplete
disturbance to soil structure and properties can not be used for any test
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES: Disturbance to soil structure water content may or may not be
changed no change in mineral constituents suitable for classification and identification tests
UNDISTURBED SAMPLES:- Little or no disturbance to the soil structure natural structure and
properties will be preserved useful for important laboratory tests like shear test, consolidation
test etc.,
Sampling Techniques
Depending upon the mode of operation, the samplers can be classified as
1. Open Drive Sampler(Chunk Sample)
 Obtained from open pit
Sampling steps:
 During excavation a block of soil is left undisturbed
 An open ended box is placed on the block of soil sample
 The sample is cut at the base and removed
 The open top is sealed using wax and transported to laboratory
This type of samples can be taken at shallow depths of 1 to 2m
2. Shelby Tube Sampler (Thin Wall Sampler)
 The sampler is a open end steel tube with a cutting edge
Sampling steps:
 The sampler is placed at the bottom of the bore hole
 The sampler is pushed into the ground
 The sampler pulled out and the sampler with the sample is transporter to the lab.
 This type of sampling is suitable in soils having some cohesion.
 Not suitable in hard soils and gravels
3. Split Spoon Sampler (Thick Wall Sampler)
 This is an open ended cylindrical tube
It consists of
 A cutting shoe at the bottom
 A barrel (pipe) split longitudinally into two halves
 A coupling at the top for connection to drill rods
Sampling steps:
 Same as for thin walled open drive sampling.
 After the sample is taken the two halves of the tube can be seperated to expose the sample.
4. Stationary Piston Sampler
This consists of:
 Sampler tube
  Piston
Sampling steps:
 Sampler tube with the piston is placed at the bottom of bore hole
 The sampler is pushed into the soil keeping the piston at the bottom of the bore hole
 Sampler along with the piston is lifted up. Negative pressure is created if the soil tends to
move downwards. This helps to retain the sample

Open Drive SamplerShelby Tube SamplerStationary Piston Sampler

Split Spoon Sampler

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4hCXQbkbEaI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jo64QIE4hr4
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 864 to 867 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 81 to 94 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 06
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Penetration tests

Introduction:
The standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to
provide information on the geotechnical engineering properties of soil. This test is the
most frequently used subsurface exploration drilling test performed worldwide The test
provides samples for identification purposes and provides a measure of penetration
resistance which can be used for geotechnical design purposes.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Methods of exploration
 Methods of boring
 Site investigation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Penetration tests (penetrometer tests).
1. Standard penetration test (SPT)
2. Static cone penetration (SCPT / CPT)
Standard penetration test
 This is a very widely used penetration test
Test setup and equipment:
It consists of:
i. Tripod
ii. Pulley
 iii. Hammer
iv. Drill rod
v. Split spoon
vi. Winch
vii. Deive head

Test procedure
The test is carried out in a bore hole. The test is carried out at every 0.75m or 1.5m depth
intervals as the bore hole is advanced.
Steps:
1) The bore hole is advanced to the reguired depth
2) The split spoon sampler is attached to drill rods and lowered to the bottom of the bore
hole
3) The split spoon sampler is driven into the soil using a hammer.
Weight of hammer= 65Kg.; the height of fall of hammer = 75cm
4) Number of blows required for penetration of every 15cm is noted.
The sampler is penetrated upto 45cm
5) The number of blows for the last 30cm penetration (15cm to45cm) is recorded as ‘N’
value
6) The split spoon sampler is then withdrawn. The sample is collected for tests in the lab
Corrections to SPT ‘N’ values
The ‘N’ values obtained in SAND soils have to be corrected for:
No correction is applied to N value obtained in cohesive soils.
1. Overburden pressure correction
The overburden pressure increases with depth. For the same relative density of
sand ,the ‘N’ values are under estimated at smaller depths and over estimated at larger
depths. Therefore the observed values, Nobs are corrected to a standard effective
overburden pressure
The corrected N value is given by:
N’ = CN Nobs
2. Correction for dilatancy
The corrected value,Ncor is given by,
Ncor =15+0.5(N’-15)
Static cone penetration test (SCPT)Or Cone penetration test (CPT)
1) A cone with apex angle 60º , base area 10cm2
 2) A friction jacket
3) Sounding rod
4) Hand operated or motorized pushing equipment
5) Pressure gauges

Test procedure
 The soil resistance to penetration is measured
 The cone is pushed and the cone tipresistance, qc is measured
 The cone and the friction jacket both are pushed and the total resistance qt is measured
 qt - qc = Frictional resistance, fs
 A plot of depth Vs penetration resistance is made

Standard penetration test Static cone penetration test

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjWDOqQjsyQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRoBXfrA9sw
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 680 to 683 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 98 to 116)

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 07
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Bore Log Report

Introduction:
 Information on subsurface conditions obtained from the boring operation is typically
presented in the form of a boring record, commonly known as “boring log”
 It is a record, made by the driller or geologist, of the rocks penetrated in the borehole. In
the laboratory, a more detailed log is prepared giving particulars relating to lithology,
palaeontology, water analysis, etc.,
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Methods of boring
 Depth of boring
 Sampling techniques
Detailed content of the Lecture:
DETAILS IN BORELOG PERIOD :
1. Description or classification of various soil and rock type
2. Ground water table details
3. Test data
CHECKLISTS IN BORELOG REPORT
1. Introduction
2. Description of the proposed structure
3. Location and geological condition of the site
4. Methods of exploration
5. Number of borings, their depth and location
 6. General description of sub-soil condition as obtained from the SPT and cone test
7. Details and results of the laboratory test conducted
8. Depth of ground water table and its fluctuations
9. Discussions of the results
10. Recommendation about allowable bearing pressure, depth and type of foundation
11. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
Information's to be Recorded
Trial pits, trenches and boreholes should be
 Given reference numbers
 located on plan
 Their ground level and the date of excavation recorded.
Additional information:
(1) Type of rig, diameter and depth of bore
(2) Diameter and depth of any casing used and why it was necessary.
(3) Depth of each change of strata and a full description of the strata
(4) Depths at which samples taken, type of sample and sample reference number.
(5) In situ test depth and reference number.
(6) The levels at which groundwater was first noted, the rate of rise of the water, its level at
start and end of each day
(7) Depth and description of obstructionsencountered.
(8) Rate of boring
(9) Name of supervising engineer.
(10) Date and weather conditions during investigation.

Sample Bore Log Report

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://mea.gov.in/Images/attach/18_Bore_Log_Details_Part_I_Bridge_1_to_Bridge_19.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=weVJ5yBOFvw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37ftaJmr604
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,
2017. ( Page no – 1.13 to 1.16 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –117 to 118 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 08
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Data Interpretation

Introduction:
Borehole is small diameter vertical hole drilled into ground to take samples for soil
investigation and evaluation. Borehole data is used to specify suitable types of foundation
for structure. While boreholes are interpreted, certain errors are highly likely to be made
which could be fatal for the foundation and safety of the structure.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Basics of soil mechanics
 Bore log report
 Methods of exploration
Detailed content of the Lecture:
1. Interpreting Folded Strata as Straight Strata
This type of error is made due to borehole distribution. In this situation, borehole data tells
straight strata and other interpretation cannot be made based on that number and layout
of the boreholes. This type of error could lead to increase in cost of foundation
construction when piles with specified length do not reach soil layer with adequate
bearing capacity and consequently the pile length should be increased.

Actual strata shape Unrealistic Assumption of Strata Formation

2. Drift Underlain by Unexplored Rock
It is possible that strong layer of soil sits on a low bearing capacity soil layer. For example,
layer of clay material overlay layer of chalk. In this case, borehole may not reach chalk
layer and clay layer would shows satisfactory strength and consequently appropriate for
foundation construction.But this assumption would be fatally wrong and would lead to
not only extend construction period but also increase construction cost. This type of case
has been encountered practically and these detrimental effects were encountered.

Clay Overlay Chalk Water infiltrate into the ground

3. Overloading Due to Lack of Dip Assessment

Occasionally, foundations would be subjected to a load that is out of expectation due to
unexamined dip in the construction area.So, it is recommended to check any dips if
existing, to prevent foundation overloading and subsequent failure.

Fig.7: The existing dip has not been assessed, as a result, extra
loads are imposed for which the retaining wall has not been designed
4. Bedrock Misinterpretation
Making errors in the interpretation of bedrock is possible. This might occur when borehole
machine reach boulders in boulder clay and consequently bedrock would be assumed
wrongly.This problem could be avoided by drilling higher number of boreholes.

True Soil Profile, Boreholes Reach Boulders Wrong Interpretation of Bedrock due
to Boulders in Clay
 5. Improper Interpretation of Strata Formation
This error might encounter when there is a fault in the area and is not examined.
Consequently, strata formation generated would not represent the actual strata.

Realistic Formation of Strata Interpreted strata formation

6. Misinterpretation of Soil Profile
It is possible to interpret soil profile wrongly due to small number of boreholes or poor
borehole layout.

Fig.12: Misinterpreted Soil Profile Fig.13: Actual soil profile

The above possible errors should be considered while boreholes are used for soil
investigations. As it has been pointed out, some of the errors could be prevented by
increasing the frequency of boreholes.

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.smart-fertilizer.com/articles/soil-test/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UsexgQw3Uhk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=co-5OvL_720
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Murthy.V.N.S., Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,Geotechnical Engineering
Series, CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd., 2013. ( Page no – 532 to 537 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –177 to 180 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 09
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code :FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher :Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : I – SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Selection Of Foundation

Introduction:
Selection criteria for foundation for buildings depend on two factors, i.e. factors related to
ground (soil) conditions and factors related to loads from the structure. The performance
of foundation is based on interface between the loadings from the structure and the
supporting ground or strata.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Soil type
 Test on soils
 Site investigation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Type of foundation depends on:
 Soil conditions at the site
 Type of the super structure like buildings, water tanks , chimneys, Bridges etc.,
 The magnitude of loads
 Type of load like vertical , lateral , static, dynamic , earthquake loads etc.,
 Ground water conditions
Environmental factors like structure in river beds , sea , hill slopes etc.,

S.No Soil Condition Preferable Foundation Type

1 Compact Sand Deposit To A Spread Footings
Greater Depth
2 Firm Clay Or Silty Clay To A 1. Spread Footings
Greater Depth 2. Pile Foundation (If Uplift Forces Are Observed)

3 Soft Clay To A Greater Depth 1.Spread Footing For Low & Medium Loading
2. Deep Foundations For Heavy Loadings
4 Loose Sand Raft Foundation

5 Soft Clay But Firmness 1.Friction Piles Or Pier Foundations

Increases With Depth 2. Raft Or Mat Foundations Also Considered

6 Hard Clay Piers Or Pile Foundations

7 Rock Surface Foundations Directly Laid On Rock Surface

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

1. Loads from building
2. Type of soil
3. Type of structures in neighbourhood
4. Type of foundations

1. LOADS FROM BUILDING:

 In case of low rise building with large span, the extent of loading is relatively modest, so
shallow foundation is preferred in this case.
 While high-rise building with short span has high loads. Therefore, deep foundation is
required in such cases. Deep foundation is provided because ground at greater depth are
highly compacted.
 In case of framed structure multi-storey building, where loads are concentrated at the
point of application, the use of pads and piles are common. Where, loads of the buildings
are uniformly distributed, like from masonry claddings, the piles are not needed.
2. TYPE OF SOIL:
 Where soil close to the surface is capable of supporting structure loads, shallow
foundations can be provided.
 Where the ground close to surface is not capable of supporting structural loads, hard
strata is searched for, and in some cases, it may be very deep, like in case of multi-storey
buildings, where loads are very high. So, deep foundations are suitable for such cases.
 Field up ground have low bearing capacity, so deep foundation is required at that place,
whereas uniform stable ground needs relatively shallow foundation.
3. TYPE OF STRUCTURES IN NEIGHBOURHOOD:
 The selection of foundation for building construction can also be done based on the type of
foundation selected for the buildings in the neighbouring buildings for the same types.
  Based on the success or failure of foundations for such buildings, decision can be taken for
the selection of foundation.
4. TYPE OF FOUNDATIONS:
 Types of foundation such as isolated foundations, combined footings, pile foundations
and raft or mat foundations etc.
 Based on the type of soils and loads from the buildings can be selected based on suitability
and requirement.

Selection Of Foundation
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://civilblog.org/2016/02/22/how-to-select-a-suitable-type-of-foundation/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hqSWYxPQq0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frntXHVXkzI
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 680 to 683 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –133 to 135 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 10
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Introduction

Introduction:
A foundation transfers the loads from the superstructure to the soil safely. The
foundations are designed such that:
 The soil does not fail in shear and
 Settlement is within the safe limits
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Site investigation
 Methods of exploration
 Type of soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Shallow foundation (Df ≤ B)
 The depth of foundation is small
 (Df /B) ≤ 1 (for shallow foundation)
 1<(Df /B) ≤ 15 (for moderate shallow foundation)
 Construction in open excavations
Types of shallow foundation
 Isolated footing, square , rectangular or circular
 Continuous or strip or wall footing
 Combined footing - rectangular or trapezoidal
 Strap footing
  Raft / mat foundation
1. SPREAD FOOTING:
 A spread footing also called as isolated footing, pad footing and individual footing is
provided to support an individual column.
 A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
 Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.

2. CONTINUOUS FOOTING:
 A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall.
 A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their
spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other.
 In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number
of spread footings in one line.
 A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.

3. COMBINED FOOTING:
 A combined footing supports two columns.
 It is used when the two columns are so close to each other that their individual footings
would overlap.
 A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one column that
a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property
line.
 By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed. A
combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

4.STRAP FOOTING:
 A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural
 strap.
 The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit.
 The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their
combined line of action passes through the resultant of the total load.
 A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the allowable soil
pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns is large.

5. RAFT FOOTING:
 A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under
the entire structure or a large part of the structure.
 A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls
are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.
 Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous
soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFLuAKGhanw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frntXHVXkzI
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 707 to 716 )
2. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,
2017. ( Page no – 2.1 to 2.3)

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 11
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Location and depth of foundation

Introduction:
Location of foundation:
a) Footings in sloping ground
b) Adjacent footings at different levels
c) Footings of new structures adjacent to old building
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Spacing of boring
 Depth of boring
 Soil condition
Detailed content of the Lecture:

Footings in sloping ground:

When foundation is to be located on a sloping ground, the depth of
foundation should be such that a line drawn from the bottom edge of the foundation at
angle of 30° and at a horizontal distance of 90 cm should not intersect, as shown in figure.
Adjacent footings at different levels
 If a construction is to be made near an adjacent property line, the foundation should be so
located that it should not extend into adjacent property line to avoid legal disputes.
 If a new foundation is to be laid near a existing structure, then the bottom edge of the near
foundation must be at minimum distance ‘S’ away from the old foundations where S is the
larger of the two foundations widths.
 The depth of new foundation should be such that the line drawn from the bottom edge of
old foundation (at 30° for average soil and 45° for soft soil) should not intersect the bottom
edge of the new foundation as shown in the figure.

Foundations at different level:

In situations where bottom of the foundations of a structure are at
different level, BIS makes the following recommendations:
(a) For footing in granular soil, a line drawn between the lower adjacent edges of adjacent
foundations should not have a slope steeper than 2 H: 1 V, as shown figure.

(b) For footing in clay soils, a line drawn between the lower adjacent edge of the upper
footing and upper adjacent edge of lower footing should not have a slope steeper than 2H:
1 V as shown in figure.
Depth of foundation:
 At a depth where the soil is adequately strong
 Minimum depth = 50cm below ground level
 Below the depth of scour in foundations in river beds
 Below the zone of moisture change i.e ,below the zone of seasonal variation of water
content
 Below the zone of frost heave in areas where temperature goes below zero.
General factors to be considered for determining depth of foundation are:
 Load applied from structure to the foundation
 Bearing capacity of soil
 Depth of water level below the ground surface
 Types of soil and depth of layers in case of layered soil
 Depth of adjacent foundation
Rankine’s formula provides the guidance on minimum depth of foundation based on
bearing capacity of soil.
d = (q/ Ø ){(1 - sinφ )/(1 + sinφ )}2
Where Ø is the angle of repose
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Dt62PqHZfM&t=240s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sqSjToVes4
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 2.3 to 2.5 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 2.8 to 2.10 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 12
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Bearing capacity of shallow foundation on homogeneous deposits

Introduction:
Types of shear failure of foundation soils
 Depending upon the compressibility of soil and depth of footing with respect to its
breadth (i.e D/B Ratio).
 When the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil is reached, it may fail in one of the
following three failure mode depending upon the type of soil and depth to width ratio of
the footing (i.e. D/B).
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of foundation
 Soil exploration
 Sampling techniques
Detailed content of the Lecture:
General Shear Failure
 This type of failure occurs in stiff clay or dense sand.
 In this type of failure, failure takes place at a very small strain.
 The load settlement curve shows a well-defined peak.
 At failure entire soil mass within the failure wedge participates and well defined rupture
surfaces develop.
 The failure is accompanied by a considerable bulging of sheared mass of soil.
 There is only marginal difference between the load causing local shear failure and general
Shear failure.
  General shear failure is accompanied by low strain (e<5%) in a soil with
considerable (ø>36o) and large N (N > 30) having high relative density (ID> 70%).
The following are some characteristics of general shear failure
 Continuous, well defined and distinct failure surface develops between the edge of footing
and ground surface.
 Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences this failure.
 Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.
 Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.
 Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in curve.
 The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.
 State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge and spreads gradually
downwards and outwards.
Local Shear Failure
 This type of failure occurs in medium dense sand with relative density between 35 – 70 %.
 In this type of failure, failure takes place at a very large strain.
 The load settlement curve does not show a well-defined peak.
 At failure only a small portion of soil underneath the footing participates and well-defined
rupture surfaces develop only at points directly below the footing.
 Bulging of soil at surface begins when strain exceeds about 8 %.
 The curve shows increase in resistance after failure.
 Local shear failure is accompanied by large strain (e> 10 to 20%) in a soil with
considerably low (ø<28) and low N (N < 5) having low relative density (ID> 20%).
The following are some characteristics of local shear failure
 A significant compression of soil below the footing and partial development of plastic
equilibrium is observed.
 Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of footing.
 Failure surface does not reach the ground surface and slight bulging of soil around the
footing is observed.
 Failure surface is not well defined.
 Failure is characterized by considerable settlement.
 Well defined peak is absent in p - ∆ curve.
Punching Shear Failure
 This type of failure occurs in loose sand or soft clay with relative density less than 35 %.
 In this type of failure, footing penetrates into the soil without any bulging in the soil at the
surface.
  Increase in vertical load increases the vertical movement and compression in the
foundation soil.
 The failure is accompanied by vertical shear around the perimeter of the footing.
 At failure, soil outside the loaded area does not participate and there will be no movement
of soil on the sides of the footing.
The following are some characteristics of punching shear failure
 This type of failure occurs in a soil of very high compressibility.
 Failure pattern is not observed.
 Bulging of soil around the footing is absent.
 Failure is characterized by very large settlement.
 Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed in curve.

General shear failure Local shear failure Punching shear failure

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEltCJUZ0hk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ugkE5EvLZg
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 641 to 643 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –133 to 136 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 13
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Terzaghi’s formula and BIS formula

Introduction:
 In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support
the loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average
contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not
produce shear failure in the soil.
 Ultimate bearing capacity (qf) is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be
supported without failure; allowable bearing capacity (qa) is the ultimate bearing capacity
divided by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur
under loaded foundations without actual shear failure occurring; in such cases, the
allowable bearing capacity is based on the maximum allowable settlement.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of shallow foundation
 Modes of failure
 Bearing capacity
Detailed content of the Lecture:

Shear stresses based on Terzaghi’s soil bearing capacity theory

  Zone I: A relatively undeformed wedge of soil below the foundation forms an active
Rankine zone with angles (45º + Ø /2).
 Zone II: The transition zones take the form of log spiral fans.
 Zone III: The wedge pushes soil outwards, causing passive Rankine zones to form with
angles (45º - Ø/2).
Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory:
 Based on Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory, column load P is resisted by shear stresses at
edges of three zones under the footing and the overburden pressure, (q = γD) above the
footing. The first term in the equation is related to cohesion of the soil.
 The second term is related to the depth of the footing and overburden pressure.
 The third term is related to the width of the footing and the length of shear stress area. The
bearing capacity factors, Nc, Nq, Nγ, are function of internal friction angle, Ø.
Terzaghi's Bearing capacity equations:
Strip footings:
Qu = c Nc + γ D Nq + 0.5 γ B Nγ
Square footings:
Qu = 1.3 c Nc + γ D Nq + 0.4 γ B Nγ
Circular footings:
Qu = 1.3 c Nc + γ D Nq + 0.3 γ B Nγ
Where,
 C: Cohesion of soil (apparent cohesion intercept); γ: unit weight of soil; D: depth of footing
(depth of embedment); B: width/breadth of footing; Nc, Nq, Nγ: Terzaghi’s bearing
capacity factors depend on soil friction angle, Ø
 Kp=passive pressure coefficient.
 (Note: from Bowles' Foundation analysis and design book, "Terzaghi never
explained..how he obtained Kp used to compute Nγ")

BIS (IS) formula for bearing capacity

IS : 6403 – 1981 has recommended the following formula which accounts for (i) shape of footing
(ii) depth of footing (iii) inclination of load
qunet = c Nc Sc dc ic + γ Df (Nq – 1) Sq dq iq + 0.5 γ B Nγ Sγ dγ iγ
Sc , Sq , Sγ---------shape factors
dc , dq , dγ– Depth factors
ic , iq , iγ– Inclination factors consideration of W.T , local shear failure are done the sand
way as in Terzaghi’s eqn
 Table 1. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors.
Ø Nc Nq Nγ
0 5.7 1 0
5 7.3 1.6 0.5
10 9.6 2.7 1.2
15 12.9 4.4 2.5
20 17.7 7.4 5
25 25.1 12.7 9.7
30 37.2 22.5 19.7
35 57.8 41.4 42.4
40 95.7 81.3 100.4
45 172.3 173.3 297.5
48 258.3 287.9 780.1
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BiAxmZ4CVc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRHhR3SaAWQ&t=661s
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 643 to 646 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –136 to 141 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 14
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Factors affecting bearing capacity – Problems

Introduction:
The bearing capacity of soil is influenced by various factors. The bearing capacity for
cohesive and cohesionless soil is different. The physical features of foundation such as
type of foundation, size of foundation, depth of foundation and shape of foundation
significantly affect the bearing capacity.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Bearing capacity
 Types of foundation
 Strength of soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:
 The amount of total and differential settlement is one of the main controlling factors for
the bearing capacity of the soil.
 The relative density in the case of granular soil and consistency in the case of cohesive soil
play a decisive role in influencing the bearing capacity.
 The physical as well as engineering properties of soils such as density, cohesion and
friction, position of water table and original stresses are the other factors governing the
soil bearing capacity.
Factors affecting bearing capacity:
 Total and differential settlements
 Location of ground water
 Initial stresses
  Nature of soil
 Physical and engineering properties of soil
 Nature of proposed foundation
 Size and shape of the foundation
 Depth of foundation below the ground surface
 Rigidity of the foundation structure
Problem 1: Determine the net ultimate bearing capacity of (i) a strip footing of 1.5m wide (ii) a
rectangular footing of 1.5m x 2m (iii) a circular footing of 1.5m diameter. The soil has c=20kN/m2
and ø= 30º , γ = 18kN/m3. The footing is placed at a depth of 1.0m below G.L.
Solution
Assume general shear failure
For ø = 30º,
Nc = 35 ,
Nq = 20 ,
Nγ = 20 from the chart
For strip footing
qunet = c Nc + γDf (Nq – 1) + 0.5 γ B Nγ.
qunet= 20 * 35 + 18 * 1 (20-1) + 0.5*18*1.5*20
qunet=1312 kN/m2
For rectangular footing,
qunet = 1.2 c Nc + γ Df (Nq – 1) + 0.4γB Nγ.
qunet= 1.2 * 20 *35 + 18 *1 * 19 + 0.4 * 18 *1.5 *20
qunet= 1398 kN/m2
For circular footing,
qunet = 1.2 c Nc + γDf (Nq – 1) + 0.3γB Nγ.
qunet= 1.2 * 20 *35 + 18 *1 * 19 + 0.3 * 18 *1.5 *20
qunet=1344 kN/m2

Problem 2: Obtain the gross and net ultimate bearing capacity of a square footing of side 2m
resting on sand having ø = 35º. The footing is placed at a depth of 1.5m below G.L. the soil above
is C L and has a unit weight of 18 kN/m2 and the sand below base has γt of 20 kN/m3 .
For ø= 35º,
Nq = 40 ,
Nγ = 45
qugross = γ Df Nq +0.4 γ B Nγ.
 qugross=18 * 1.5* 40 +0.4 * 20 * 2 *45
qugross=1080 + 720
qugross=1800 kN/m2
qunet = γ Df (Nq – 1) + 0.4γB Nγ.
qunet = 18 * 1.5 * 39 + 0.4 * 20 * 2* 45 = 1773 kN/m2
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=86jDOqHw7So
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6BH4a3NFhU
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 2.15 to 2.17 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 2.4 to 2.5)

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 15
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Bearing capacity from in-situ tests (SPT, SCPT and plate load)
Introduction:
 Plate load test is performed to determine the ultimate load bearing capacity of soil over
the in-situ conditions.The plate load test is mandatory in case of designing foundation
over the sandy and clayey soil.
 This test gives the highest rate of accuracy determining the safe bearing capacity of of soil
in case of shallow foundations.This test determines the Ultimate Bearing capacity of Soil,
Settlement of foundation & Allowable bearing pressure of soil.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Bearing capacity of soil
 Ultimate load on soil
 Type of soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:

 This test gives the highest rate of accuracy determining the safe bearing capacity of of soil
in case of shallow foundations.This test determines the Ultimate Bearing capacity of Soil,
Settlement of foundation & Allowable bearing pressure of soil.
 Plate load test is suitable for Cohesionless soil as in case of Cohesion soil the settlement
takes place in longer duration which this test is not suitable.
 Then the settlement per each load increment is recorded to calculate the bearing capacity
of the soil.
Varieties in Plate load test and their durations:-
1.Gravity load test
 In this type of method, a rigid platform is utilized to transfer loads through loading of
sandbags or concrete blocks. These blocks and sandbags act as a dead weight, and whole
arrangement rests upon vertical columns.
 The hydraulic jack is provided in between the rigid plate and top of the column to transfer
the load properly.
2.Reaction truss method
 In this method, the reaction generated through jack is borne by reaction truss installed
over it.
 The undesirable movement of truss is controlled by soil anchors or nails fixed into the soil
with the help of hammers.The most commonly observed truss is made of mild steel
sections.In order to curb later movement, truss is locked with guy ropes.

Gravity load testReaction truss method

Plate load test apparatus / equipment

 Excavating tools
 Hydraulic jack (ball socket type with 50 T capacity)
 Mild steel plate (25 mm thickness & (30*30) cm)
 Dial gauges (minimum 3)
 Reaction beam and reaction truss with soil nails
 Plum Bob ( To determine center)
Plate load test procedure
 The pit is excavated over the site of test with the size of 1.5×1.5m and to the depth of
proposed foundations.
 One needs to find the centre of excavated pit and portion to the size of the plate is eroded
to the depth 1-2 cm.
 Ensure that the foundation area must be 5 times the area of plate and the seating load of
0.07Kg/cm² is applied to prevent undulations below the plate.
  The eroded portion is filled with rock dust in order to counter undulations and that of
plate installed is completely horizontal which on later is checked by tube level.
 Spacers are installed over the hydraulic plate on which hydraulic jack is installed.
 The hydraulic jack in order to counter the load applies pressure which in result leads to
transmission of pressure over the plate.
 Setting load of 7kN/m² is applied for some time and released. This is followed by the
application of safe load with an increment of 30%.
 In case of loading through truss, both free sides are anchored with soil nails with
uniformly loading at the ends.
Results recording:
 Dial gauges arranged at the bottom of the pit record are used to record settlement at every
5 minutes for first 30 minutes and every 10 minutes for rest 30 minutes.
 The observation are made until 25 mm settlement is observed which can take few hours
for clayey and soft soil or even up-to couple of days for hard strata.

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BsX69r9oKlo&t=43s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=duLjQsKfstM
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 673 to 679 )
2. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,
2017. ( Page no – 2.22 to 2.24 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 16
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Allowable bearing pressure – Seismic considerations in bearing capacity

evaluation
Introduction:
There are two design procedures used in practice in North America.
 One is allowable stress design (ASD);
 The other is load and resistance factor design (LRFD).
In ASD, the ultimate load (stress) resistance is determined, and then this is divided by a factor of
safety (FS) to obtain the allowable load (stress).
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Settlement
 Types of settlement
 Bearing capacity of soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:
ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE (OR) STRESS AND LOADANDRESISTANCE
FACTORDESIGN:
Allowable load (stress or strength) = Ultimate load 1stress or strength2 /FS
 The factor of safety has no fundamental basis. It is based on experience and judgment of
the performance of existing foundations. ASD is the long-standing (conventional) design
method.
 LRFD is based on reliability methods considering the uncertainties in loads, soil resistance,
method of analysis, and construction. The loads are multiplied by load factors, usually
greaterthan one in different combinations, and the ultimate soil resistance is multiplied by
 a factor, called the performance factor, usually less than one. The governing equation for
design based on LRFD is
∑iρiPi<φiRi
Where r is load factor;
P is load;
R is resistance;
w is the performance factor;
h is a ductility, redundancy,and operational performance factor;
and i is the load type, such as dead load or live load, and the resistance type.
 Codes (e.g., International Building Code, UBC), engineering organizations (e.g., American
Society for Civil Engineers, ASCE), and agencies (e.g., American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, AASHTO) have their own recommendations on
load and resistance factors and load combinations.
 We will consider only two types of loads, dead load (DL) and live load (LL), one load
combination, and a limited set of performance factors. They are intended only to show
how to apply these methods.
 The load factors apply only to strength. For settlement calculation, the factored load or
allowable stress isused.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U61UmSMSV4g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9GsPNc-ZA-s
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 708 to 709 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –263 to 266 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 17
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Determination of Settlement of foundations on granular and clay deposits -

Total and differential settlement - Allowable settlements – Codal provision
Introduction:
The total vertical displacement that occur at foundation level is termed as settlement. The
cause of foundation settlement is the reduction of volume air void ratio in the soil.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Settlement
 Types of settlement
 Bearing capacity of soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:
The following formula as suggested by Terzaghi and Peck is used to calculate the
settlement of footing ,
For granular soil.
Sf = Sp[Bf (Bp + 0.3)/Bp(Bf + 0.3)]²
For clayey soil the following equation can be used.
Sf = Sp*(B/Bp)
Where,
Sp = Settlement of plate, mm
Sf = Settlemnt of footing, mm
Bp = Width or dia of plate, m
B = Width of footing, m
 Settlement
Moisture Content Changes: Moisture content in foundation soil can change and
damage settlement. If too much moisture soaks through foundation soil and causes the
softening or weakening of clay silt, reducing the soils ability to support the load and
typically results in foundation settlement.
Total settlement
It is the magnitude of downward movement. Differential settlement is non-
uniform settlement. It is "the difference of settlement between various locations of the
structure.
Differential settlement
During and after the building construction, settlement of the foundation structure is
considered normal and acceptable to a certain extent. However, a potential problem occurs
with differential settlements. Differential settlements are uneven foundation
settlements that can be the result of numerous causes.

Settlement
Allowble settlement:
 The allowable settlement is defined as the acceptable amount of settlement of the structure
and it usually includes a factor of safety.
 It is the maximum settlement beyond which the foundation fails due to excessive
settlement.
 It’s permits a maximum allowable settlement of 40mm for isolated foundations on sand
and 65mm for those on clay.
 For raft foundations on sand 40mm to 65mm and that on clay 65mm to 100mm.
 Average settlement ranging from 20 mm to 300 mm have been permitted in engineering
practice, depending on the type of soil, structure, construction type.
According to IS 1904 permits tolerable settlement S as under,
Sand clay

(a) Isolated foundations 60 mm 75 mm

(b) Raft foundations 65 mm 100mm
According to British code permits tolerable settlement S as under,
Sand clay

(a) Isolated foundations 50 mm 75 mm

(b) Raft foundations 75 mm 125

Problem:The settlement of plate of size 300mm on sand for a particular loading intensity is
12.8mm. Find the settlement of foundation of size 1.5m on the same sand for the same loading
intensity.
Given Data
Size of plate = 300mm
Load intensity settlement = 12.8mm
Foundation width = 1.5m
Solution
𝐵𝑓 (𝐵𝑝 + 0.3)
Settlement (Sf) = Sp [ ]2
𝐵𝑓 (𝐵𝑝 + 0.3)

1.5(0.3+ 0.3) 2
(Sf) = 12.8 [ ]
0.3(1.5+ 0.3)

(Sf) = 35.6mm
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=58Tz6L9-bo8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w_4f3iLiulo
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 678 to 679 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –273 to 277 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 18
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : II – SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Methods of minimizing total and differential settlements

Introduction:
 Differential settlement is the term used in structural engineering for a condition in which a
building's support foundation settles in an uneven fashion, often leading to
structural damage.
 All buildings settle somewhat in the years following construction, and this natural
phenomenon generally causes no problems if the settling is uniform across the building's
foundation or all of its pier supports.
 But when one section of the foundation settles at a faster rate than the others, it can lead
to major structural damage to the building itself.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Settlement
 Types of settlement
 Bearing capacity of soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Methods of minimising settlementand differential settlement:
 Preloading or pre-compaction to decrease compressibility.
 Decreasing the effective load by floating foundation effect.
 Increasing the depth of foundation (in sandy soils) to take advantage of increasing
modulus of soil.
 Use of piles or piers.
  In-situ reinforcement of bearing layer.
 Differential settlement is not usually a sign of carpentry construction flaws, although some
people view it that way. Instead, the phenomenon results when the soil beneath the
structure expands, contracts, or shifts in an uneven fashion, causing the foundation to
settle at an uneven rate. Thus, the villain is not the carpentry construction practice, but
rather the prior evaluation and preparation of the building site itself and the construction
of the foundation.
Causes
 Uneven settlement of a foundation is always caused by some form of shifting of the soil
beneath the foundation, but this shifting can take place for several reasons.
Soils with weak bearing capacity
 Some soils are weak and highly compressible by nature, and buildings erected on such
soils require special footings to spread the load over a wider area.
 This tends to be an issue about which local building architects are well familiar, and it is
generally addressed during the excavation and construction of the foundation.
Poorly compacted soil
 Building sites for commercial or residential structures often consist of land that has been
artificially leveled and filled for ease of construction.
 When properly compacted, this fill soil can provide a perfectly solid base for supporting
foundations, but when not compacted, the soil may settle and compress unevenly under
the foundation, leading to structural damage.
Changes in soil moisture
 Soil that is either too dry or too wet can cause foundation settlement. When moisture
builds up, soils saturate and lose their load-bearing capacity.
 Dry soils shrink in volume. Either situation can cause uneven settling of the foundation.
Soil moisture changes can come about due to prolonged drought or by mature trees and
other plantings that draw moisture from the soil.
 In rare instances, leaking in subfloor heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning ductwork
can affect the soil moisture beneath the foundation.
Trees and vegetation
 Large trees, shrubs, and other vegetation planted along a building's foundation or close to
it can gradually draw the moisture out of the soil and cause it to shrink.
 This situation is more common with shallow foundations than with basement-level
foundations that extend down many feet.
 When foundation settlement begins to occur several decades after construction, the soil
 has likely shrunk because large trees are drying out the soil.
Soil consolidation
 The weight of a building on the underlying soil, especially fill soils that were added just
prior to construction, will naturally compress the soil.
 Clay soils, in particular, become very dense as moisture is squeezed out. As the soil
consolidates and shrinks, the foundation settles downward, a movement that can cause
cracks and other structural damage.
Vibration
 Vibration of the soil from seismic activity or even from nearby road traffic can cause soils
to settle or shift unevenly, leading to structural damage to the building.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8rRX4VeKN-o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0M4TIorI1gk
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 344 to 347 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 263 to 267 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 19
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Types of footings

Introduction:
 Footing is one of the most important parts of a structure which transfers loads of a
structure to the underlying soil. The selection of suitable type of footing generally depends
on the following factors:
1. The depth of the soil at which safe bearing strata exists.
2. The type and condition of soil.
3. The type of the superstructure.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of foundation
 Soil condition
 Methods of exploration
Detailed content of the Lecture:
1. Strip footing:
 It is a component of shallow foundation which distributes the weight of a load bearing
wall across the area of the ground. It is also known as wall footing.

2. Spread Footing:
 As the name suggests, a spread is given under the base of the foundation so that the load
 of the structure is distributed on wide area of the soil in such a way that the safe bearing
capacity of the soil is not exceeded.

3. Isolated Footings:
 It is square, circular or individually rectangular slab of uniform thickness, provided under
each column.

4. Stepped Footings:
 The main purpose of using stepped footing is to keep the metal columns away from direct
contact with soil to save them from corrosive effect. They are used to carry the load of
metal columns and transmit this load to the below ground.

5. Combined Footings:
 When two or more columns are supported by a footing it is called combined footing. This
footing may be of rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Combined footing is provided under
following situations.
 When columns are close to each other and their individual footings overlap.
 Soil having low bearing capacity and requires more area under individual footing.
 The column end is situated near the property line and the footing can not be
extended.

6. Strap Footing:
 In such footing, the outer and inner column is connected by a strap beam, does not
transfer any load to the soil. The individual footing areas of the columns are so arranged
that the C.G of the combined loads of the two columns pass through the C.G of the two
 footing areas. Once this criterion is achieved, the pressure distribution below each
individual footing will be uniform.

7. Mat Foundation:
 This foundation covers the entire area under the structure. This foundation has only RCC
slab covering the whole area or slab and beam together. Mat foundation is adopted when
heavy structures are to be constructed on soft made-up ground or marshy sites with
uncertain behavior. Mat foundation is also known as raft foundation.

8. Sloped Footing:
 The footings having sloping top or side faces are known as sloped footings. This type of
footing is useful in the construction of formwork.

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vN8smpxhL9c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ths577Wxpw
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,
2017. ( Page no – 3.1 to 3.5 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 3.1 to 3.7 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 20
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Contact pressure distribution

Introduction:
 Contact pressure is the actual pressure transmitted from the foundation to the soil. On the
assumption that the vertical settlement of the foundation is uniform, it is found from the
elastic theory that the stress intensity at the edges of a foundation on cohesive soils is
infinite.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of footing
 Types of soil
 Presuure on the soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:
 On the underside of the footing, the soil reaction produce a upward pressure which is
assumed uniform in deriving different relationship for soil-structure interaction problem.
This pressure is called contact pressure. But actually a footing are not flexible as well as
contact pressure is not uniform, necessitating more investigation for actual contact
pressure distribution.
 The contact pressure is the ratio of the normal load to the true contact area, which is the
sum of the front and rear areas. It may be called the scratch hardness only in the case of
plastic contact.
 The actual distribution of contact pressure depends upon a number of factors such as
1) Elastic properties of footing
 2) Elastic properties of soil
3) Thickness of footing
Contact Pressure On Saturated Clay
 Flexible Footing When a footing is flexible, it deforms into shape of bowel, with the
maximum deflection at the center.
 The contact pressure distribution is uniform.Rigid FootingWhen a footing is rigid, the
settlement is uniform.
 The contact pressure distribution is minimum at the center and the maximum at the edges.
 The stresses at the edges in real soils can not be infinite as theoretically determined for an
elastic mass. In real soils, beyond a certain limiting value of stress, the plastic flow
occursand the pressure becomes finite.
Contact pressure on sand
 Flexible footingIn this case, the edges of flexible footing undergo a large settlement than at
the centre.
 The soil at the centre is confined and, therefore, has a high modulus of elasticity and
deflects less for the same contact pressure.
 The contact pressure is uniform. Rigid footingIf the footing is rigid, the settlement is
uniform.
 The contact pressure increases from zero at the edges to a maximum at the centre. The soil,
being unconfined at edges, has low modulus of elasticity.
 However, if the footing is embedded, there would be finite contact pressure at edges.
 Thus it is observed that the contact pressure distribution for flexible footing is uniform for
both clay and sand.
 The contact pressure for rigid footing is maximum at the edges for footing on clay, but for
rigid footings on sand, it is minimum at the edges
Consequence of assuming uniformity in pressure
 For convenience, the contact pressure is assumed to be uniform for all types of footings
and all types of soils if load is symmetric.
 The above assumption of uniform pressure distribution will result in a slightly unsafe
design for rigid footing on clays, as the maximum bending moment at centre is
underestimated.
 It will give a conservative design for rigid footings on sandy (cohessionless) soils, as the
maximum bending moment is overestimated. However, at the ultimate stage just before
failure, the soil behaves as an elasto-plastic material ( and not an elastic material) and the
contact pressure is uniform and the assumption is justified at the ultimate stage.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=34HONH40vY0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Z5yC67h5Ys
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 3. 6 to 3.8 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 3.11 to 3.12 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 21
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Isolated footing

Introduction:
Spread footings are the most widely used type among all foundations be because they are
usually more economical than others. Least amount of equipment and skill are required
forthe construction of spread footings. Further, the conditions of the footings and the
supportingsoil can be readily examined.
Other types of foundations are more favourable when the soil has a very low
bearingcapacity or when excessive settlementsare expected to result due to the presence of
compressible strata within the active zone.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of footing
 Loads on structure
 Soil type
Detailed content of the Lecture:
 A spread footing is a type of shallow foundation used to support a wall or a column. In
the former case, it is called a continuous or wall footing and in the latter, it is called an
isolated or individual footing.
 The base area of the footing is governed by the bearing capacity of the soil. The
plainfooting is usually of reinforced concrete and is used to support a reinforced concrete
column.
 The mass concrete footing is used to support a steel column. Usually the sloped footing
 will beof the same material as that for the column; alternatively, it can be of reinforced
concrete.
 Thestepped footing is used either for a column or for a wall. All the steps may be of
concrete or thebottom most step alone may be of concrete, the others being of the same
material as for the column.
PROPORTIONATING FOOTINGSIZE
Footing sizes are basically designed for safe bearing and then checked for permissible
total and differential settlements. The size is modified if the permissible settlements are
notsatis- fied. While proportionating, the following procedure may be followed
(Teng,1962):

1. Calculate the load on thestructure:

Ll + d = live load + dead load

for the column which has the largest live load to dead load ratio.
2. Calculate the service load for the same column:

Ls = dead load + C (live load)

where C is ½ for ordinary buildings and ¾ for warehouses and storage floors.
3. Decide the storage floor’s safe bearingpressure:

Qa = safe bearing pressure from theories or field tests

4. Compute the designpressure:

Qd = design pressure

for all footings except the one with the lowest live load to dead load ratio.

qd = Lc / A

where Ls is the service load. That is,

 proportioned area of footing = service load / qd

5. Computetheareaoffootingsupportingthecolumnwiththelowestliveloadtodeadload ratio:
A = (Ll+d )/ qs

6. Decide the length and width of footing and check for permissible settlement and alter
width if needed.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E5b6UlV7g44
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h2LSftATAZw&t=293s
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 3.11 to 3.12 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 3.23 to 3.28 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 22
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.Selvapriya

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Proportioning of footing ( Rectangular combined footing)

Introduction:
 A combined footing is generally rectangular in plan if sufficient space is available beyond
each column, If one of the columns is near the property line, the rectangular footing can
still be provided if the interior column is relatively heavier.
 However, if the interior column is lighter, a trapezoidal footing is required to keep the
resultant of the column loads through the centroid of the footing.
 Thus the resultant of the soil reaction is made to coincide with the resultant of the
columnloads.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of footing
 Types of combined footing
 Loads on structure
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Rectangular Combined Footing:
The design of a combined footing consists of selecting length and width of the footing
such that the centroid of the footing and the resultant of the column loads coincide.
With the dimensions of the footing established, the shear force and bending moment
diagram are drawn. The thickness of the footing is selected from the bending moment and
shear force considerations.
The footing is designed as a continuous beam supported by two columns in the
 longitudinal direction. The reinforcement is provided as in a continuous beam.

The procedure consists of following steps:

1. Determine the total column loads. Q = Q1 +Q2
Where Q1 – exterior column load
Q2 – interior column load
2. Find the base area of the footings.
A = Q /qna
Where qna – allowable soil pressure.Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column
loads measured from one of the column, say exteriorcolumn.
x̅ = Q2 X x2/Q
Where x2 - distance between columns.
̅ b1/2)
3. Determine the total length offooting. L = 2(x+
Where b1 – width of exterior column.
4. Find the width of the footing. B =A/L
5. As the actual width and length that are provided may be slightly more due to rounding
off, the actual pressure is givenby
q0 = Q / A0

Where A0 – actual area

6. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the footing,
considering the pressure q0. For convenience the column loads are taken as concentric
column loads acting at thecentres.
7. Determine the bending moment at the face of the columns and the maximum bending
moment at the point of zeroshear.
8. Find the thickness of the footing for the maximum bendingmoment.
9. Check the diagonal shear and punching shear as in the case of isolated footings. Check for
bond at the point of contraflexure.
10. Determine the longitudinal reinforcement for the maximum bendingmoment.For
transverse reinforcement, assume a width of (b + d) to take all the bending moment in the
short direction, where b is the column side and d is the effective depth.
Problem: Find the dimensions of a rectangular footing to carry a design load of 1000kN
with a factor of safety of 3. The foundation is at a depth of 1.2m below ground level in a
clayey soil of unconfined compressive strength of 120 kPa. The width / length ratio of the
footing can be taken as 0.8. Adopt BIS 6403recommendation.
 Solution
Area required = Design load / Safe bearing capacity
Soil is clay ; C = Unconfined comp. st / 2 = 120 / 2= 60kN/m2
ø=0 B/L=0.8
qu net = C Nc Sc dc ic
for ø = 0; Nc = 5.7
Load is vertical; ic =1;
Sc = 1 + 0.2 B / L ; 1+ 0.2*0.8 =1.16
dc = 1+ 0.2 Df / B tan (45+ø/2)
= (1+0.2 (1.2/B)) = 1+0.24/B
qu net = 60*5.7*1.16*(1+0.24/B)
qsafe = qu net / 3 = (132) * (1+0.24B)
Area required = 1000 / 132 * (1+0.24B)
Choose B/L = 0.8; L = B/0.8 =1.25B
ie., 1000/(132*(1+0.24B)) = B* 1.25B
ie., 165 B2 +39.6B -1000 =0
Solving, B=2.35m
B/L=0.8: L=2.94m
Choose a rectangular footing of size 2.35m * 2.95m
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBa-vtXp7lg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QYz6ZMHwVOs
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 3.9 to 3.15 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 3.29 to 3.42 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 23
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Proportioning of footing ( Trapezoidal combined footing)

Introduction:
The geometric proportions and shape are so fixed that the centeroid of the footing area
coincides with the resultant of the column loads. This results in uniform pressure below
the entire area of footing. Trapezoidal footing is provided when one column load is much
more than the other.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of footing
 Types of combined footing
 Loads on structure
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Trapezoidal combined footings:
Trapezoidal combined footings are provided to avoid eccentricity of loading with respect
to the base. Trapezoidal footings are required when the space outside the exterior column
is limited and the exterior column carries the heavier load.
1. Determine the total column loads. Q = Q1 +Q2
Where Q1 – exterior column load Q2 – interior column load
2. Find the base area of the footings. A = Q /qna
Where qna – allowable soil pressure.
3. Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column loads measured from one of the
column, say exteriorcolumn.
 x̅ = Q2*x2/Q
Where x2 - distance between columns.
4. Determinethedistance“x”oftheresultantfromtheouterfaceoftheexteriorcolumn. x‟ = x̅+ b1 /2
where b1 – width of exterior column.
A trapezoidal footing is required if L/3 < x‟ < L/2
Where L – length of the trapezoidal footing determined from L = 2(x̅ + b1/2)
If x‟ = L/2, a rectangular footing is provided. However if x‟< L/3, a combined footing
cannot be provided. In such a case, a strap footing is suitable.
5. Determine the width B1 and B2 from the followingrelations.
Once the dimension B1 and B2 has been found, the rest of the design can be done as in the
case of rectangular combinedfooting.
As the actual width and length that are provided may be slightly more due to rounding
off, the actual pressure is givenby
q0 = Q / A0
Where A0 – actual area
6. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the footing,
considering the pressure q0. For convenience the column loads are taken as concentric
column loads acting at thecenters.
7. Determine the bending moment at the face of the columns and the maximum bending
moment at the point of zeroshear.
8. Find the thickness of the footing for the maximum bendingmoment.
9. Check the diagonal shear and punching shear as in the case of isolated footings. Check for
bond at the point of contraflexure.
10. Determine the longitudinal reinforcement for the maximum bendingmoment.

Problem:A trapezoidal footing is to be proportion to support two square columns of 30cm

and 50cm sides respectively. Columns are 6m apart and the safe bearing capacity of the
soil is 400kN/m2. The bigger column carries a load of 500kN and the smaller carries a load
of 3000kN. Design a suitable size of the footing that does not extend beyond the face of the
column.
CG loads:
Taking moment about the left end
5000 * 0.25 + 3000 * 6.25 = (5000+ 3000) * x
x = (5000 * 0.25 + 3000 * 6.25) / 8000 =2.50 m from the left end
To ensure CG coincides with the centroid of the trapezium
 (a + 2b)/(a+b) * 6.4/ 3 = 2.5-------------------------(1)
The area required = 8000/400 = 20m2
i.e.,(a+b/2) * 6.4 = 20--------------------------------------(2)
Solving (1) and (2)
a= 5.15m and b = 1.07m
Say, a= 5.2m; b = 1.10m
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cHZ8HmPLR7A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NkpQPRNFW3I
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 3.9 to 3.15 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 3.29 to 3.42 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 24
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Types of mat foundation

Introduction:
 A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath the structure and
supports all the walls and columns.
 when the allowable soil pressure is low, or the building loads are heavy, the use of spread
footings would cover more than one-half of the area and it may prove more economical to
use mat or raft foundation.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Soil condition
 Types of foundation
 Load on the structure
Detailed content of the Lecture:
 They are also used where the soil mass contains compressible less or the soil is sufficiently
erratic so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control.
 The mat or raft trends to bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the
differentialsettlement.Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement above highly
compressive soils, by making the weight of structure and raft approximately equal to the
weight of the soil excavated.
TYPES OF RAFT FOUNDATION:
(a) FLAT TAPETYPE:
In this type of mat foundation a mat of uniform thickness is provided. This type is most
 suitable when the column loads are relatively light and the spacing of columns is
relatively small and uniform.

(b) FLAT PLATE THICKENED UNDERCOLUMN:

When the column loads are heavy this column is thickened to provide enough thickness
for negative bending moment and diagonalshear.Sometimes instead of thickening a slab,
a pedestal is provided under each column above the slab to increase the thickness.

(c) BEAM AND SLABCONSTRUCTION:

In this type of construction, the beams run in two perpendicular directions and a slab is
provided between the beams. The columns are located at the intersection of beams. This
type is suitable when the bending stresses are high because of large column spacing and
unequal column loads.

(d) BOXSTRUCTURES:
In this type of mat foundation, a box structure is provided in which the basement walls
acts as a stiffeners for the mat. Boxes may be made of cellular construction or rigid
frame consisting of slabs and basement walls. This type of mat foundation can resist
very high bendingstresses.
(e) MATS PLACED ONPILES:
The mat is supported on the piles in this type of construction. This type of mat is used
where the soil is highly compressible and the water table is high. This method of
construction reduces the settlement and also controls buoyancy.
ADVANTAGES:
1. The foundation and ground floor slab is poured at the same time so which reduces our
construction time and material.
2. It requires less excavation.
3. It is provided where the shallow foundation is possible but the condition of the soil is
poor.
4. Reduces the cost of constructing a floor slab (But not fully economical).
5. It helps in the transferring of loads over a wide area.
6. It shows good resistance and cannot slide during the flood.
7. We can handle more heavy loads as compared to other types of foundations.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Raft foundation requires a large quantity of steel and concrete.
2. This foundation is costly (Volume of footing was increasing).
3. It is not suitable and used for domestic home construction.
 4. Special measurement is needed in case of concentrated loads.
5. In the mat foundation, skilled laborers are required.

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GoqySK7Gavw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xT50WymJSh8
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 3.15 to 3.17 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech Company
Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 3.63 to 3.65 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 25
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Proportioning of footing(Mat foundation)

Introduction:
 When the loads are heavy and the soil is weak .
 In loose sand or soft clay deposits when the sum of the area required for individual
footings become more than 50% of the plinth area of the building. i.e., Σ area of individual
footing > 50% of plinth area of the building.Where pockets of loose / soft soil exist at the
site.

Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:

 Types of foundation
 Soil condition
 Methods of boring
Detailed content of the Lecture:
The raft is used under the following situations:
1. When the structural loads are heavy and the supporting soil is very weak or
highly compressible.
2. If the soil has very low bearingcapacity.To minimise differentialsettlement.
3. In the bridging over weak spots or loose pockets in the underlyingsoil.
4. If the individual footings cover more than half of the area then use of raft is
more exponential.
5. In high compressible soil, if the settlement under individual footings are
quitehigh. For resisting large, hydraulic upliftpressure.
Assumption:
1. Raft isrigid
2. Contact pressure is uniform or linear or planar as per super structureloading.
3. So the centroid of the soil pressure coincides with the line of action of the
resultant force of all the loads action on the matfoundation.
Design procedure
1. Compute the column loads (dead load, live load, wind load, earthquake load,
snow load etc. From super structure)
2. Determine the line of action of all theloads
3. Calculate the contact pressure as per the assumption and the conventional –
empirical analysis designformula
q =(Qt /A)± (Qt ex/Iy)� ± (Qt ey / Ix)y
Where Qt = total load on mat; A = total area of the mat
X, Y = coordinates of any given points on the with respect to the x and y axes passing
through the centroid of the area of the mat.ex, ey = eccentricities of the resultant forces.
Ix , Iy = moment of inertia of the mat with respect to the x and y axes respectively.
4. The mat is treated as strip in X and Y direction for the analysis for shear force and
bending moment.
5. The design dimensions and reinforcement are arrived in both thedirection.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bZ-_xomld2s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-L7BgNtfi94
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 3.9 to 3.15 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 3.29 to 3.42 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 26
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Proportioning of mat foundation(Problems)

Introduction:
 When the loads are heavy and the soil is weak
 In loose sand or soft clay deposits when the sum of the area required for individual
footings become more than 50% of the plinth area of the building.
 i.e., Σ area of individual footing > 50% of plinth area of the building.
 Where pockets of loose / soft soil exist at the site.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Mat foundation
 Types of mat foundation
 Proportioning of mat foundation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Problem 1:
A building has to be supported on R.C.C. raft foundation of dimensions 15m * 23 m. The
soil is clay, which has an average unconfined weight of the strength of 15kN/m 2. The
pressure on the soil due to the weight of the building and the loads that it will carry will
be 150kN/m2 at the base of the raft. The building has provision for basement floors. At
what depth should the bottom of the raft be placed to provide a factor of safety of 3
against shear failure?
γclay = 20kN/m2 ;
C=15/2 = 7.5kN/m2;
 For clay, ø = 0; Nc = 5.7
qsafe = 1.2 C Nc/F + γ Df = Loading pressure
qsafe= (1.2 * 7.5 * 5.7) / 3 + 20 * Df = 150 kN/m2
i.e., 20 Df = 150-17.1
Df =6.65m
Problem 2:
The soil profile at a site consists of clay of unconfined compressive strength of 110kPa and
unit weight 19 kN/m3 extending to a great depth. A raft foundation of plan dimensions of
40m* 16m is to be installed at a depth of 3m below ground level and it carries a load of
100kN/m2 including its self weight. There is a provision for basement floor. Determine the
factor of safety as per BIS 6403
C=110/2=55kN/m2; ø=0; Nc =5.7
qsafe = C Nc Sc dc ic / F + γ Df
Sc = (1+0.2 B/L) = (1+0.2*16/40) =1.08
dc = (1+0.2 Df/B)= (1+0.2 * 3/16) = 1.0375
ic = 1 (Load is vertical)
Loading pressure, q=qsafe
i.e., 100kN/m2 =(55 * 5.7 * 1.08 * 1.0375)/F + 19 *3
Solving, F=8.2
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KrFPZpMuulU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9-tNDTT26II
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 3.9 to 3.15 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no – 3.29 to 3.42 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 27
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : III – FOOTINGS AND RAFTS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Floating Foundation

Introduction:
A floating raft foundation, or floating foundation, the foundation has a volume such that
were that volume filled with soil, it would be equal in weight to the total weight of the
structure. When the soil is so soft that even friction piles will not support the building
load, the final option is the use of a floating foundation, making the building like a boat
that obeys Archimedes’ principle—it is buoyed up by the weight of the earth displaced in
creating the foundation.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of foundation
 Soil type
 Boring technology
Detailed content of the Lecture:
1. Mat (consisting of slabs, usually of reinforced concrete, which underlie the entire area of a
building), or floating types. A floating foundation consists of boxlike rigid structures set
at such a depth below ground that the weight of the soil removed to place it equals the
weight of the building.
2. Floating raft is type of land-based foundation that protects against settlement and
the liquefaction of soft soil due to seismic activity. It was a necessary innovation in the
development of tall buildings in the wet soil of Chicago in the 19th century, where it was
developed by John Wellborn Root who came up with the idea of interlacing the concrete
slab with steel beams.
3. A floating foundation is the foundation of a building that does not use footings. It is a
poured cement slab that has two deep edges that go just below the frost line in northern
climates. The foundation actually does float on the earth and moves as temperatures
compact and expand the soil.
4. In a typical floating foundation, the plumbing and electrical lines are fastened to the slab
by simply running them through the floor as it is poured. This means that the plumbing,
drainage, and electrical lines must all be completed prior to pouring the foundation. In
many cases, it is a much more affordable method of building than using a footing
equipped foundation, but it can lead to very expensive repair bills if the plumbing
requires work in the future. In warmer climates, the floating slab is much more friendly to
homeowners as it does not flex too much because there are fewer extreme changes in
temperature. It also helps to cool the structure, as the foundation's contact with the ground
draws cool temperatures through the concrete and disperses them throughout the
building.
5. When constructing out-buildings such as sheds, the term can take on another meaning.
Some flooring systems for outside sheds are known as floating foundation floors and do
not require any concrete to be poured. In these applications, the foundation is merely
lumber framing placed upon blocks. This allows the floor of the shed to sit elevated off of
the ground, which prevents water from seeping into the shed and protects the shed's
contents.
6. When pouring a floating slab foundation, it is imperative to install reinforced steel rods or
heavy wire mesh in the floor before pouring the concrete. The wire and steel prevent the
floor from cracking and breaking as the slab flexes with the earth. Without this
reinforcement, the slab will likely crack and possibly cause damage to the walls and
ceiling, as the floor will be allowed to flex unevenly. Often, the flexing of an un-reinforced
slab will cause doors to not close or open correctly and windows to stick or even crack.
Walls are also subject to cracking, and drywall is prone to break at the seams.
Principle:
1. The principle of floating foundation is an exact balance of weight removed against weight
imposed.
2. The result is zero settlement of the building.
3. The principle of floating foundation can be used partially leaving some excess load on the
soil.
4. The floating foundation is used to reduce settlement to an acceptable value.
5. The shear strength of the foundation soil is so low, that rupture of the soil would occur in
the building where to be ground level.
6. If excavation extend below the water table, the problem of water lowing will be
considered.

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fiR_Za4Ax4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N3msAkpUumI
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.S.Arunachalam., Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, Eigth Edition,

2017. ( Page no – 3.16 to 3.17 )
2. Dr.R.Sudharsanan., Foundation Engineering, Second Edition, Sri Krishna Hitech
Company Pvt Ltd, 2017. ( Page no –3.7 to 3.8 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 28
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Types of piles and their function

Introduction:
Types ofpiles
 The use of piles as a foundation can be traced since olden times.
 The art of driving piles was well-established in Roman times and the details of such
foundations were recorded by Vitruvious in 59 AD.
 Today, pile foundation is much more common than any other types of deepfoundation.
 Modern pile driving started with the first steam pile drivers, invented by Nasmythin 1845.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of foundation
 Soil strength test
 Layes of soil
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Classification based on the function
Based on the function or the use, piles may be classified as:
 End bearingpile
 Frictionpile
 Compactionpile
 Tension pile or upliftpile
 Anchorpile
 Fender pile and dolphins
  Batterpile
 Sheet pile.
 End bearing piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to asuitablebearing
stratum.
 Friction piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load carryingmaterial by
means of skin friction along the length of thepiles.
 Compaction piles are used to compact loose granular soil, thus increasing theirbearing
capacity.
 The compaction piles themselves do not carry any load. Hence they may beofweaker
material— sometimes of sand only.
 The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out and sand is filledinits place
thus forming a ‘sandpile’.
 Tension or uplift piles anchor down the structures subjected to uplift duetohydrostatic
pressure or due to overturningmoment.
 Anchor piles provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling orotherpulling
forces.
 Fender piles and dolphins are used to protect water front structures againsttheimpact from
ships or other floatingobjects.
 Sheet piles are commonly used as bulkheads, or as impervious cutoff toreduceseepage and
uplift under hydraulicstructures.
 The batter piles are used to resist large horizontal or inclinedforces.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATERIALS AND COMPOSITION
 Concretepiles
 Precast
 Cast-in-situ
 Driven piles Cased oruncased
 Bored piles : Pressure piles andunder
 Timberpiles
 Steelpiles
 H-piles
 Pipe pile
 Sheetpile
 Compositepiles
 Concrete andtimber
 Concrete andsteel.
The common types are as follows
 Raymond standardpile,
 Raymond step-taperpile,
 Union metal pile of monotube,
 MacArthur compressed uncased pile,
 MacArthur cased pile,
 Franki standardpile,
 Western button bottom pileetc.,

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fUZHMegAL74https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SxN9H
nrVHa4
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:

1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 727 to 729 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 535 to 545 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 29
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Factors influencing the selection of pile

Introduction:
Factors Affecting Selection of Piles
 They are used for large structures, and in situations where the soil under is not suitable to
prevent excessive settlement.
 Piles are required for setting out of towers for high power transmission lines and in some
cases are also used for supporting the multistory buildings.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of foundation
 Soil strength test
 Types of pile foundation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Among the factors that will influence the selection of type of piles for a given project are the
following:
 Type, size, and weight of the structure to be supported.
 Physical properties of the soil at the site.
 Depth to a stratum capable of supporting the piles.
 Possibility of variations in the depth to a supporting stratum.
 Availability of materials for piles.
 Number of piles required.
 Facilities for driving piles.
  Comparative costs in place.
 Durability required.
 Types of structures adjacent to the project.
 Depth and kind of water, if any, above the ground into which the piles will be driven.
Situations Which Demand Pile Foundations
 Sub-soil water table is so high that it can easily affect the other foundations.
 Load coming from the structure is heavy and non uniform.
 Where grillage or raft foundations are either very costly or their adoption impossible due to
local difficulties.
 When it is not possible to maintain foundation trenches in dry condition by pumping, due
to very heavy inflow of seepage or capillary water.
 When it is not possible to timber the excavation trenches in the case of deep strip
foundation. (strip foundation-spread footing under wall ).
 When overlay soil is compressible, and water-logged and firm hard bearing strata is located
at quite a large depth.
 When structures are located on river-bed or sea-shore and foundations are likely to be
scoured due to action of water.
 Large fluctuations in sub-soil water level.
 Canal or deep drainage lines exist near the foundations.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hzcyUbwgqqQhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwQI0t
8ITzk
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 729 to 732 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 537 to 545 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 30
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Carrying capacity of single pile in granular and cohesive soil – static formula –
dynamic formulae (Engineering news and Hileys) – Capacity from insitu tests (SPT and SCPT)
Introduction:
 The ultimate load carrying capacity, or ultimate bearing capacity, or the ultimate bearing
resistance Qt of a pile is defined as the maximum load which can be carried by a pile, and at
which the pile continues to sink without further increase ofload.
 The allowable load Qa is the safe load which the pile can carry safely and is determined on
the basis of :
 Ultimate bearing resistance divided by suitablefactor ofsafety,
 The permissiblesettlement,Overall stability of thepile-foundation.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of foundation
 Factors influencing the selection of pile
 Types of pile foundation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
The load carrying capacity of a pile can be determined by the following methods
 Dynamicformulae
 Staticformulae
 Pile loadtests
 Penetrationtests
STATICFORMULAE
The static formulae arc based on assumption that the ultimate bearing capacity Qf of a pile isthe
sum of the total ultimate skin friction R, and total ultimate point or end hearing resistance Rp:
Q = Rf + RPOrQf = As. rf+ Ap.rr
Where
As= surface area of pile which the s-kin friction acts
Ap = area of cross-section of pile on which hearing resistance acts. For tapered piles, A may be
taken as the cross-sectional area at the lower one third of the embedded length.
rf =average skin friction
RP = unit point or toe resistance
A factor of safety of 3 may he adopted for finding the allowableload.
(i) For cohesive soil:
For the pile in cohesive soil, point bearing is generally neglected for individual pile
action, since it is negligible as compared to frictional resistance. The unit skin friction
may be taken equal to the shear strength of (he soil :
rf= c = qu / 2
rp = c . Nc = 9c Qp = c Af+ 9c .Ap
(ii) For noncohesive soil:
rf= K tanø ( Ýz + q )
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBNk9y_Yf8Ehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwQI0t8
ITzk&list=TLPQMjUwOTIwMjAo-49qpso-5Q&index=4
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 732 to 733 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 546 to 567 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 31
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Carrying capacity of single pile in granular and cohesive soil – static formula –
dynamic formulae (Engineering news and Hileys) – Capacity from insitu tests (SPT and SCPT)
Introduction:
DYNAMIC FORMULA
 When a pile hammer hits the pile, the total driving energy is equal to the weightof
hammer times the height of drop or stroke.
 In addition to this, in the case of double acting hammers, some energy is alsoimpacted by
the steam pressure during the return stroke.
 The total downward energy is consumed by the work done in penetrating the pileand by
certain losses.
 The various dynamic formulae are essentially based on this assumption. It is alsoassumed
that soil resistance of dynamic penetration of pile is the same as to thepenetration of pile
under static or sustained loading.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Types of foundation
 Factors influencing the selection of pile
 Types of pile foundation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Following are some of the commonly used dynamic formulae
(1) Engineering News formula. The Engineering News formula was proposed by A.M.
Wellington (1818) in the following general form:
Where,
Qa= allowable load
W = weight of Hammer
H = height of fall
F = factor of safety =6
S = final set (penetration) per blow, usually taken as average penetration, cm per blow for
the last 5 blows of a drop hammer, or 20 blows of a steam hammer.
C = empirical constant
Denoting W in kg, H in cm, S in cm, and
C = 2.5 cm for drop hammer and
C = 0.25 cm for single and double acting hammers,
The above formula reduces to the following forms: Drop hammers:
Qa= WH / [ 6 ( S + 2.5 ) ]
Single acting steam hammers: Qa= WH / [ 6 ( S +0.25 ) ]
Double acting steam hammers:
Qa = [ ( W + ap ) H ] / [ 6 ( S +0.25 ) ]
Where, a = effective area of piston P = mean effective steam pressure
R = Whn / (s + c / 2)
Where
R = Ultimate driving resistance in ton W = Mass of Ram in ton
h = Height of free fall in cm considered at 80% for winch operated drop
n = Efficiency of the blow representing ratio of energy after impact to striking energy of
ram
s = Average final set per blow in cm
c = Average sum of temporary elastic compression
 Applying the factor of safety, the safe load for the pile is then calculated. Comments about
the use of dynamic formulae
 Dynamic formulae are best suited to coarse grained soils for which the shearstrength is
independent of rate of loading, because they allow no developmentof excess pore pressure
around the pile during driving if saturated ordry.
 The great objection to any of the pile driving formulae is the uncertainty aboutthe
relationship between the dynamic and static resistance ofsoil.
 In case of submerged loose uniform fine sands, impact of driving maycause
  Liquefaction of soil, thus showing much less resistance than that which willoccur under a
static load.
 Similarly, very dense saturated fine sand may show an increased drivingresistance which
decreases withtime.
 For clays, the dynamic formulae are valueless because the skin frictiondeveloped in clay
during driving is very much less (due to change in soilstructure from flocculent to
disperse or due to thyrotrophic effect) than whichoccurs after a period oftime.
 Also, the point resistance is much more at the time 0 driving because of porepressure
developed in clay, which reduces later on when the porepressure dissipate.
 Dynamic formulae give no indication about probable future settlement ortemporary
changes in soilstructure.
 The formulae do not take into account the reduced bearing capacity of pilewhen in a
group.
 Law of impact used for determining energy loss is not strictly valid for pilessubjected to
restraining influence of the surroundingsoil.
 In Engineering News formula, the weight of the pile and hence its inertiaeffect is
neglected.Energy losses due to vibrations, heat and damage so dolly or packing are
notaccounted for.
 In Hiley’s formula, a number of constants are involved, which are difficultto determine.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WuqQISU7vsQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c7NxX0h7SKs
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 732 to 733 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 551 to 567 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 32
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Negative skin friction

Introduction:
Negative skin friction is usually a downward shear drag acting on a pile or pile group due
to downward sinking of surrounding soil relative to the piles. This shear drag movements
are expected to occur when a segment of the pile penetrates a compressible soil stratum
that can consolidate. Downward drag may be caused by
 Placement of fill on compressible soils, lowering of the groundwater table.
 Placement of fill on Under-consolidated natural or compacted soils.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Dynamic formulae
 Capacity from insitu tests
 Types of pile foundation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
 These situations in the site can cause the compressible soils surrounding the piles to
consolidate. When the tip of pile is bearing in a relatively stiff stratum, the upper
compressible soil will move down relative to the pile this will induce a drag load on the
pile/pile group. This induced drag load can be quite large and it should be added to the
design load for assessing the stresses in the pile.
 Vesic found that a relative downward drop of as slight as 15mm of the soil with respect to
the pile may be ample to mobilize full negative skin friction. Though the geotechnical
capacity of the pile is unaffected by down-drag, it does serve to increase the stresses
 &increase settlement in the pile/pile cap. It changes the axial force distribution pattern
along the pile shaft. From geotechnical point of view, it is a Service State problem.

Calculating Negative Skin Friction

For pile groups, it can be presumed that there is no relative displacement between the
piles and the soil in-between the piles. Thus, the total force acting down is equal to the
weight of the block of soil held between the piles, plus the shear adjacent to the pile group
perimeter due to negative skin friction. The avg. downward load transferred to a pile in a
pile group can be estimated by
Q = 1/N [A x g x L + s x L x P]
Where,
Q = Average downward load transferred to a pile in a pile group
A = horizontal area bounded by the pile group or cross-sectional area of piles and
enclosed soil
N = no. of piles in pile group
g = unit weight of fill or compressible soil layers
L = length of embedment above the bottom of the compressible soil layers
s = shear resistance of the soil
P = perimeter of the area A
For a single pile, the downward load transferred to the pile is equal to the shearing
resistance along the pile as
Q = s x L x P’
Where,P’ = perimeter of pile.
The total applied load (QT) on a pile group or single pile is the live load, dead load, and
the drag load due to negative skin friction.
 QT = Q + A x g x L + s x L x P for pile group
QT = Q + s x L x P’ – for single pile
Where,Q = LL+DL
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8O1RrAzfoY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYFpS4Q2tFg
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 740 to 744 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 568 to 575 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 33
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Group capacity and efficiency (Feld’s rule, Converse – Labarra rule and block
failure)
Introduction:
 Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is influenced
by the spacing between the piles. Piles are driven generally in groups in regular pattern to
support the structural loads. The structural load is applied to the pile cap that distributes
the load to individual piles.
 If piles are spaced sufficient distance apart, then the capacity of pile group is the sum of
the individual capacities of piles. However, if the spacing between piles is too close, the
zones of stress around the pile will overlap and the ultimate load of the group is less than
the sum of the individual pile capacities especially in the case of friction piles, where the
efficiency of pile group is much less.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Dynamic formulae
 Capacity from insitu tests
 Types of pile foundation
 Negative skin friction
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Capacity of Pile Group
 Group action of piles is evaluated by considering the piles to fail as a unit around the
perimeter of the group. Both end bearing and friction piles are considered in evaluating
 the group capacity.
 End bearing pile is evaluated by considering the area enclosed by the perimeter of piles as
the area of footing located at a depth corresponding to the elevation of pile tips.
 The friction component of pile support is evaluated by considering the friction that can be
mobilized around the perimeter of the pile group over the length of the piles as shown in
figure below:

Pile group capacity, Q = q0 X B2 + 4 x B x L x f (Square)hy Buy When You Can Rent

Where, Q = ultimate capacity of pile group
q0 = ultimate bearing pressure of footing of area B2 (B = size of pile group)
L = Length of pile
f = shear resistance
Efficiency of Pile Group
The efficiency of pile group depends on the following factors:
1. Spacing of piles
2. Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and
3. Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)
 The reduction in total bearing value of group of piles is more in case of friction piles,
particularly in clayey soils. No reduction in grouping occurs in end bearing piles.
 The pile groups which are resisting the load by combined action of friction and end
bearing, only the load carrying capacity of friction is reduced. The efficiency of the pile
group can be calculated by using the following formula:

 Thus, the pile group efficiency is equal to the ratio of the average load per pile in the
 group at which the failure occurs to the ultimate load of a comparable single pile.
 Efficiency of a pile group can also be obtained by using Converse – Labarre formula:

Where m = number of rows

n = number of piles in a row

in degrees
d = diameter of pile end
s = spacing of piles.
Generally center to center spacing between piles in a group is kept between 2.5 d and 3.5d
where d is the diameter of the pile.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gm4RgCzM-0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9GMBpZZtjXM
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 737 to 740 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –617 to 626 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 34
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Settlement of pile groups

Introduction:
 It may often be required to use more than one pile below a column, depending on the
column load and the load capacity of a single pile. Usually, driven piles should be provided
in groups and a single pile should not be used.
 This is because the pile may move laterally during the driving operation, resulting in the
eccentricity of the load, causing additional bending stresses in the pile, decreasing both the
structural capacity and the soil resistance capacity.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Dynamic formulae
 Capacity from insitu tests
 Types of pile foundation
 Negative skin friction
Detailed content of the Lecture:
The load capacity of a pile group may not be equal to the sum of the load capacity of the
individual piles in the group due to the following reasons:
1. When piles are used in a group at close spacing, the pressure bulbs of individual piles may
overlap, causing more stress in the overlapping soil zones. This causes a reduction in the
load capacity.
2. When piles are driven in loose- to medium-dense cohesionless soils, it may cause
densification of the soil, increasing the load capacity more than the estimated load capacity.
The efficiency of the pile group is defined as –

where Qug is the ultimate load capacity of the pile group, Qu is the ultimate load capacity of
the individual pile, and N is the number of piles in the pile group.
Spacing of Piles:
 For end-bearing piles founded on a very hard stratum, deriving their load capacity mainly
from end-bearing resistance, the spacing of piles is governed by the competency of the end-
bearing stratum. The minimum spacing of end-bearing piles is 2.5 d, where d is the
diameter of the pile shaft. For piles resting on rock, the minimum spacing of piles is 2 d,
where d is the diameter of the pile shaft.
 For friction piles, the pile spacing should ensure that the pressure bulbs of individual piles
do not overlap, which otherwise causes a reduction in the pile capacity. The minimum
spacing of friction piles is 3 d, where d is the diameter of the pile shaft. In the case, of non-
circular piles, such as square or rectangular piles, the diameter of the circle circumscribing
the pile is used to determine the minimum pile spacing.
 The spacing of piles should not be so close as to cause direct contact between two adjacent
piles in a group at any level, arising due to the tolerance allowed in alignment for
installation of piles.
Load Capacity of Pile Group in Sand and Gravel:
 When piles are driven in loose- to medium-dense cohesionless soils, the soil around the pile
is compacted, increasing the group efficiency. For better results, it is desirable to start the
driving of piles at the center of the site and work outward. For dense sands, the driving of
piles may reduce group efficiency due to dilatancy. In the case of bored piles, there is
limited densification of soil around the pile. Group efficiency, therefore, depends on pile
spacing, and may be less than 100% if piles are spaced closer than 3 d, where d is the
diameter of the pile.The efficiency of the pile group may be obtained from the converse
Lebarre equation for friction piles –

where m is the number of rows of piles, n is the number of piles in each row, B is the
 diameter of the pile, and S is the spacing of piles.
The load capacity of a pile group is obtained from –Qug = ƞgNQu
In the case of end-bearing piles, driven in dense sand at a spacing more than 3 d, where d is
the diameter of the pile shaft, group efficiency is generally much more than 100%. The load
capacity of the pile group is taken as –Qug = NQu
For bored piles in sand and gravel, group efficiency is about 2/3 to 3/4.
In the case of piles deriving their support mainly from friction and connected by a pile cap,
the group may be visualized to transmit load to the soil as if from a column of soil enclosed
by the piles. The ultimate capacity of the group may be computed following this concept,
taking into account the frictional capacity along the perimeter of the column of soil as above
and the end-bearing of the said column.
Settlement of a Pile Group:
The settlement of a pile or pile group in clay can be computed from the principles of
consolidation. Settlement of a pile group is more than the settlement of a single pile, even
when the load is the same. This is because the pressure bulb of the pile group is deeper
than that of individual piles, causing the compression of a larger volume of soil by the pile
group.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20vdT3AEulYhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oA3xzB8
Ldh0
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 737 to 740 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –624 to 626 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 35
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Interpretation of pile load test (routine test only)

Introduction:
 It may often be required to use more than one pile below a column, depending on the
column load and the load capacity of a single pile. Usually, driven piles should be provided
in groups and a single pile should not be used.
 This is because the pile may move laterally during the driving operation, resulting in the
eccentricity of the load, causing additional bending stresses in the pile, decreasing both the
structural capacity and the soil resistance capacity.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Dynamic formulae
 Capacity from insitu tests
 Types of pile foundation
 Negative skin friction
Detailed content of the Lecture:
 Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles. Two types
of tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz.
 vertical, horizontal (lateral) pull out, are performed on piles.
 Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles. Two types
of tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz. vertical, horizontal
(lateral) pull out, are performed on piles.
 Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles. Two types
 of tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz.
 vertical, horizontal (lateral) pull out, are performed on piles.
Initial Load Tests on Piles
 This test is performed to confirm the design load calculations and to provide guidelines for
setting up the limits of acceptance for routine tests. It also gives an idea of the suitability of
the piling system. Initial Test on piles are to be carried out at one or more locations
depending on the number of piles required.
 Load applied for the initial (cyclic) load test is 2.5 times the safe carrying capacity of the
pile. Loading for Initial Tests is conducted as per Appendix ‘A’ Clause 6.3 of IS-2911 Part
IV.
Routine Load Tests on Piles
 Selection of piles for the Routine Test is done based on number of piles required subject to
maximum of ½% of total number of piles required. The number of tests may be increased
to 2% depending on the nature / type of structure. The test load applied is 1½ times the
safe carrying capacity of the pile.
 The Maintained load method as described in Clause 6.2 of IS-2911 (Part IV) – 1985 shall be
followed for loading for the Routine Tests.
This test will be performed for the following purposes:
a) To ensure the safe load capacity of piles
b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial Test.
Vertical Load Tests on Piles
This test will be carried out as stipulated in IS-2911 (Part IV) 1995.

Fig: Vertical load test on piles

Lateral Load Tests on Piles
The jack should be placed horizontally, between two piles. The load on the jack shall be the
same on both the piles. The load will be applied in increments of 20% of the estimated safe
load and at the cut off level. The load will be increased after the rate of displacement is
nearer to 0.1 mm per 30 minutes.
If the cut-off level is approachable, one dial gauge exactly at the cut-off level shall measure
the displacement. In case the cut-off level is not approachable, 2 dial gauges 30 cm apart
 vertically, shall be set up and the lateral displacement of the cut-off level calculated by
similar triangles.

Fig: Horizontal load test on piles

Pull out Tests on Piles
A suitable set up shall be designed to provide an uplift force to the piles. The load
increments and the consequent displacements shall be as per the case of a vertical load test.

Fig: Pull-out test on piles

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=du0cf0dxUPQhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E7ESm
RmAog
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 744 to 750 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 583 to 588 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 36
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : IV – PILE FOUNDATION

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Under reamed piles - Capacity under compression and uplift

Introduction:
 A cast-in-situ concrete pile with an enlarged bulb at bottom made by either cutting or
scooping out soil or by any other suitable process is called Under-Reamed Pile. Under-
Reamed Piles are also called bored cast-in-situ concrete piles.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Pile load test
 Capacity from insitu tests
 Types of pile foundation
 Negative skin friction
Detailed content of the Lecture:
 According to ‘DR.B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain’ (Author of Soil
Mechanics and Foundations), An Under-Reamed Pile is a cast-in-situ concrete pile, having
one or more bulb in its lower portion. This bulb is called an under ream.
 When only one bulb is provided at the bottom of the pile, it is known as single Under-
Reamed Pile foundation. When two or more bulbs are provided at the bottom of the pile, it
is known as multiple bulbs Under-Reamed Pile foundation.

Uses of Under-Reamed Piles

 Under-Reamed Piles are widely used for different types of soils such as sandy soils, clayey
soils and also expansive soils. Under-Reamed Piles are required to be taken down to a
certain depth because of the following considerations:
  To avoid the undesirable effect of seasonal moisture changes in expansive soils such as
black cotton soils.
 To reach hard strata.
 To obtain adequate capacity for downward, upward, lateral loads and moments.
 To take the foundations below the scour level.
 They have also been found useful for factory buildings and machine foundations.
 Under-Reamed Piles are also used under situations, where the vibration and noise caused
during construction of piles, are to be avoided.

Advantages of Under-Reamed Piles

 It decreases the vertical settlement and also differential settlement.
 It is used when soil tends to swell and shrink due to moisture variation or expansive
nature of the soil.
 Provision of under-reams or bulbs has the advantage of increasing the bearing and uplift
capacities.
 When the number of bulbs are increased from one to two, the load carrying capacity of the
Under-Reamed Pile is increased.
 The provision of bulbs is of special advantage in Under-Reamed Piles to resist uplift and
they can be used as anchors.
 The cost advantages of Under-Reamed Piles are due to the reduced pile shaft diameter,
resulting in less concrete needed to replace the excavated material.
Disadvantages of Under-Reamed Piles
 At a depth, where nature of soil varies with a climatic condition, Under-Reamed Piles are
not suitable for waterlogged soil, as they take load by friction.
 These piles need strict quality control and regular supervision during the construction.
 Most of the times, Under Reamed Piles are driven manually with hand operated machine.
Hence maintaining plumb of pile is very essential, because if they are not in plumb whole
load transfer mechanism would change.
 Two types of situation may be visualized. In the first, the soil strength is constant or
increases with depth as in residual soil. Second, soft deposits occur below the strong top
layers.
Capacity under compression and uplift:
 The major components resisting uplift forces on pile foundation are skin friction and self-
weight of the pile.
 So the governing equation for uplift capacity isQuplift= fs.As + Weight of the pile
 The capacity of the pile (Axial/Lateral/Uplift) either arrived by field approach or
theoretical approach is called Ultimate capacity which is divided with a factor to arrive at
safe carrying capacity of the pile.
 The ultimate capacity is usually dictated by the limitations on settlements as per local
engineering codes
 The main purpose of under reporting the pile capacity by dividing it with a factor of safety
is to accommodate various un certainties in soil strata, Loading andPossible reduction in
strength of sub soil strata due to installation technique, etc.

Problem: A 30cm dia 10 m long concrete pile is embedded in a clay deposit having unconfined
comp.st. of 50kN/m2. Estimate the safe uplift capacity of the pile. Assume FOS = 2; Adhesion
factor ά = 0.4; γconc =25kN/m3
Quplift = ά c (пd * L) /F + пd2/4 * L * 25
Quplift = ((0.4 * 25 *п * 0.3 * 10) /2 )+(( п * 0.32 )/ 4 )* 10 *25
Quplift =47.1 + 17.7 = 64.8kN
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wyn332e70Cs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jg6YzOejeko
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 750 to 757 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –606 to 611 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 37
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Plastic equilibrium in soils

Introduction:
 A body of soil is said to be in plastic equilibrium if every lift of it is on the verge of
failure.
 Rankine investigated the stress conditions corresponding to those states of plastic
equilibrium which can be developed simultaneously throughout a semi infinite mass of
soil acted on by no force other thangravity.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Pile foundation
 Bearing capacity of soil
 Types of foundation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
 The stress condition during plastic equilibrium can be represented by the following Mohr
Coulombequation:

Or

Where
Nø= tan' (45° + (ø/2)= flow value
 ø1 and ø3 = major and minor principal stresses at any pointin the soil mass,
atfailure.
In terms of stress components in x-z plane,

The theory on which the computation of the stress in a state of plastic equilibrium is based
is called the theory of plasticity. The theory of plasticity pertaining to soils is based on
Mohr’stheory of rupture.
When the material is just on the point of flowing plastically, it is still in static equilibrium,
satisfying the following equilibrium equation in x-z plane:
 Combining above equations lead to an equation, called Kotter’sequation, the solution
of which for a given boundary condition gives theorientation of slip lines together
with the stress at each point of the failurezone (Sokolovsky,1965).
 The equations of equilibrium in two dimensions are automatically satisfiedby the
Mohr-circle. Also, the state of plastic equilibrium can be represented by two straight
lines at an angle to thea-axis.
 Thus the Mohr diagram is a convenient tool for studying the stressconditions at
equilibrium both before and at yield in thesoil.

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Do0MMdU5cU8https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OGvn
QYSFD88
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 499 to 500 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –355 to 357 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L -38
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Active and passive states

Introduction:
 Rankine's Theory assumes that failure will occur when the maximum principal stress at
any point reaches a value equal to the tensile stress in a simple tension specimen at failure.
This theory does not take into account the effect of the other two principal stresses.
Rankine's theory is satisfactory for brittle materials, and not applicable to ductile
materials. This theory is also called the Maximum Stress Theory.
 The Rankine theory assumes a frictionless soil-wall interface and a vertical wall (no wall
slope).
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Soil strength
 Bearing capacity of soil
 Types of foundation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Earth pressure
 A soil mass retained by a wall exerts a pressure on the wall. This pressure P is called ‘earth
pressure’. The magnitude of this earth pressure depends on the movement of the wall.
Earth pressure at rest-
 When there is no movement of wall, the soil is in a state of rest, ie., there is no strain in the
soil. The pressure corresponding to zero lateral strain is called ‘earth pressure at rest’ and
is given by p0 = k0 pv
 Where, po – earth pressure at rest at depth ‘z’ below G L
ko - coefficient of earth pressure at rest
pv -effective vertical pressure at depth ‘z’
Example situation : A basement wall ; Lateral movement of the wall is prevented.

Active earth pressure

 When a wall moves away from the back fill, the earth pressure reduces. Beyond certain
movement, the earth pressure reaches a minimum value. This minimum pressure is
known as ‘active earth pressure’, and is given bypa = ka pv
Where, pa – active earth pressure
ka – coefficient of active earth pressure
Ex : Retaining wall on a hill slope; Bridge abutments
Passive earth pressure
 When a wall moves towards the back fill, the earth pressure increases. Beyond certain
movement, it reaches a maximum and is known as ‘passive earth pressure’.
Ex: Anchored sheet pile walls ; Anchors are subjected to passive pressure.
Passive earth pressure is given by, pp = kp * pv
Where, pp – passive earth pressure
kp – coefficient of passive earth pressure
 The coefficients, k0, ka , * kp are obtained as:
k0 = 1- sin ø or ka = (1-sin ø) / (1+ sin ø) ; kp =( 1+ sin ø)/( 1- sin ø)
Where ø – angle of shearing resistance

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RC6-
LJphzW4https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxsKH5zRWVI
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 499 to 503 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –375 to 377 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L -39
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Active and passive states (Problems)

Introduction:
There are three types of earth pressures on the basis of the movement of the wall.
 Earth Pressure at rest
 Active Earth Pressure

 Passive Earth Pressure

Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Retaining wall
 Bearing capacity of soil
 Types of foundation
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Problem 1: A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back retains a purely cohesive fill. Height of
wall is 12m. Unit weight of fill is 20kN/m3. Cohesion = 1 N/cm2.(i) What is the total Rankine’s
thrust on the wall, (ii) At what depth does the resultant thrust act.
c = 1 N/cm2 = 10kN/m2
In a purely cohesive soil, ø = 0, ka = 1
pa = γ z – 2c
At z = 0, pa = -2 c = -20kN/m2
At z = 12, pa = 20 * 12 – 2 * 10
= 220kN/m2
At pa = 0, γ z = 2 c ; z = 2* 10 / 20 =1 m
 Total thrust = ½ * 220 * 11 – ½ * 20 * 1
= 1210 -10 = 1200 kN/m
Taking moment about the base,
((1210 * 11/3) –( 10 * ( 11 + 2/3 ) )) / 1200 = 4437 – 116.7 /1200
= 3.61 m from base

Problem 2: A smooth vertical wall is 4m height and retains a soil with a bulk unit weight of 18
kN/m3 and ø = 30º. The top of the soil level with the top of the wall and is horizontal. The soil
surface carries a uniformly distributed load of 30 kN/m2. Determine the total active thrust per
meter length of the wall and its point of application.
ka = (1- sin ø) /( 1 + sin ø) = (1- sin 30º )/( 1 + sin 30º )= 0.5 /1.5 = 1/3
At z = 0, pv = q = 30 kN/m2 ; pa = 1 / 3 * 30 = 10 kN/m2
At z = 4 m, pv =30 + 18 * 4 = 102 kN/m2 ; pa = 1/3 * 102 = 34 kN/m2
Total earth thrust = 4 * 10 + ½ * 24 * 4 =88 kN
Resultant –
Taking moment about the base
40 * 2 + 48 * 4/3 = 88 * x
x = (80 + 64) / 88 = 1.64m
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vffZvVCmsjU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwrNbVmvNM&list=TLPQMzAwOTIwMjALfgNo9Q8SC
A&index=2
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 503 to 504 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –377 to 380 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 40
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Rankine’s theory – cohesionless and cohesive soil

Introduction:
Rankine (1857) consider the equilibrium of a soil element within a soil mass bounded by a
plane surface.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Retaining wall
 Plastic equilibrium in soils
 Active and passive states
Detailed content of the Lecture:
ASSUMPTION :
The soil mass is homogeneous and semi infinite
The soil is dry and cohesionless.
The back of the retaining wall is smooth and vertical .
The ground surface is plane ,which may be horizontal or inclined.

RANKINE'S –COHESIONLESS: Backfill Horizontal-Active Earth Pressure

1. A semi-infinite mass is replaced by a smooth wall AB in Fig.
2. The lateral pressure acting against smooth wall AB is due to the mass of soil ABC above
 failure line AC which makes an angle of 45° + ɸ/2 with the horizontal.
3. The lateral pressure distribution on wall AB of height H increases in simple proportion
to depth.
4. The pressure acts normal to the wall AB
5. Backfill Horizontal-Passive Earth Pressure
6. If wall AB is pushed into the mass to such an extent as to impart uniform compression
throughout the mass, soil wedge ABC in Fig(a). will be in Rankine's passive state of
plastic equilibrium.
7. The inner rupture plane AC makes an angle 45° + ɸ/2 with the vertical AB. The
pressure distribution on wall AB is linear as shown in Fig(b).

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JGzoZ2dbmCU&t=82shttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
vffZvVCmsjU&list=TLPQMzAwOTIwMjALfgNo9Q8SCA&index=1
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 504 to 510 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –328 to 331 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 41
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Coulomb’s wedge theory

Introduction:
 COULOMB'S(1776) developed a method for the determination of the earth pressure in
which he considered the equilibrium of the sliding wedge which is formed when the
movements of the retaining wall takes place.
 The Coulomb theory provides a method of analysis that gives the resultant horizontal
force on a retaining system for any slope of wall, wall friction, and slope of backfill
provided.
 This theory is based on the assumption that soil shear resistance develops along the wall
and failure plane.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Retaining wall
 Plastic equilibrium in soils
 Active and passive states
 Rankine’s theory
Detailed content of the Lecture:
COULOMB'S THEORY
 The active case the sliding wedge moves downward and outward relative to the backfill.
 In passive case the sliding moves upwards.
 The lateral pressure on the wall is equal and opposite to the relative forces extended by
the wall in order to keep the sliding wedge in equilibrium.
COULOMB'S THEORY –SAND – ACTIVE STATE
ASSUMPTIONS :
1. The soil is isotropic and homogeneous
2. The rupture surface is a plane surface
3. The failure wedge is a rigid body
4. The pressure surface is a plane surface
5. There is wall friction on the pressure surface
6. Failure is two-dimensional and
7. The soil is cohesionless

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVPqCtrqhxs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FCVnQycAMXc
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 522 to 532 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –365 to 366 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 42
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Coulomb’s wedge theory (Derivation)

Introduction:
 Coulomb’s made the following assumptions in the development of his theory and hence it
is called Coulomb’s Wedge Theory.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Retaining wall
 Plastic equilibrium in soils
 Active and passive states
 Rankine’s theory
Detailed content of the Lecture:
COULOMB'S - ACTIVE STATE
In Fig AB is the pressure face, The backfill surface BE is a plane inclined at an angle ß with the
horizontal
 α is the angle made by the pressure face AB with the horizontal
 H is the height of the wall
 AC is the assumed rupture plane surface, and
 θ is the angle made by the surface AC with the horizontal
 The weight of the wedge W length of the wall may be written as
 W = γA, where A = area of wedge ABC
 Area of wedge ABC = A = 1/2 AC x BD, where BD is drawn perpendicular to AC.
 From the law of sines, we have
 Making the substitution and simplifying we have,
 The various forces that are acting on the wedge are shown in Fig.a

 As the pressure face AB moves away from the backfill, there will be sliding of the soil
mass along the wall from B towards A.
 The sliding of the soil mass is resisted by the friction of the surface.
 The direction of the shear stress is in the direction from A towards B.
 lf Pn is the total normal reaction of the soil pressure acting on face AB,
 The resultant of Pn and the shearing stress is the active pressure Pa making an angle δ
with the normal.
 Since the shearing stress acts upwards, the resulting Pa dips below the normal.
 The angle δ for this condition is considered positive.
 As the wedge ABC ruptures along plane AC, it slides along this plane.
 This is resisted by the frictional force acting between the soil at rest below AC, and the
sliding wedge. The resisting shearing stress is acting in the direction from A towards
C.
 If Wn is the normal component of the weight of wedge W on plane AC, the resultant of
the normal Wn and the shearing stress is the reaction R.
 This makes an angle ϕ with the normal since the rupture takes place within the soil
itself.
 Statical equilibrium requires that the three forces Pa, W, and R meet at a point.
 Since AC is not the actual rupture plane, the three forces do not meet at a point.
 But if the actual surface of failure AC'C is considered, all three forces meet at a point.
 However, the error due to the non concurrence of the forces is very insignificant and as
such may be neglected.The polygon of forces is shown in Fig.

 In Eq. , the only variable is θ and all the other terms for a given case are constants.
Substituting for W, we have

 The maximum value for Pa is obtained by differentiating Eq. with respect to θ and
 equating the derivative to zero, i.e.
 The maximum value of Pa so obtained may be written as
 where KA is the active earth pressure coefficient.
 The total normal component Pn of the earth pressure on the back of the wall is

 If the wall is vertical and smooth, and if the backfill is horizontal, we have
 ß=δ= 0 and α= 90 deg, Substituting these values in Eq.

COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY FOR SAND FOR PASSIVE STATE

 where Kpis the passive earth pressure coefficient.

 The total normal component of the passive earth pressure Pn on the back of the wall is
 For a smooth vertical wall with a horizontal backfill, we have

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=id_S7g23Zog
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OZ7eUBRkng
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 522 to 532 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no – 546 to 567 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 43
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Earth pressure on retaining walls of simple configurations

Introduction:
 A soil mass retained by a wall exerts a pressure on the wall. This pressure P is called ‘earth
pressure’. The magnitude of this earth pressure depends on the movement of the wall.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Retaining wall
 Plastic equilibrium in soils
 Active and passive states
 Rankine’s theory
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Earth pressure at rest-
When there is no movement of wall, the soil is in a state of rest, ie., there is no strain in the
soil. The pressure corresponding to zero lateral strain is called ‘earth pressure at rest’ and
is given by,
p0 = k0 pv
Where, po – earth pressure at rest at depth ‘z’ below G L
ko - coefficient of earth pressure at rest
pv -effective vertical pressure at depth ‘z’
Example situation : A basement wall ; Lateral movement of the wall is prevented.
Active earth pressure
When a wall moves away from the back fill, the earth pressure reduces. Beyond certain
 movement, the earth pressure reaches a minimum value. This minimum pressure is
known as ‘active earth pressure’, and is given by
pa = ka pv
Where, pa – active earth pressure
ka – coefficient of active earth pressure
Ex : Retaining wall on a hill slope; Bridge abutments
Passive earth pressure
When a wall moves towards the back fill, the earth pressure increases. Beyond certain
movement, it reaches a maximum and is known as ‘passive earth pressure’.
Ex: Anchored sheet pile walls ; Anchors are subjected to passive pressure.
Passive earth pressure is given by,
pp = kp * pv
Where, pp – passive earth pressure
kp – coefficient of passive earth pressure
The coefficients, k0, ka , * kp are obtained as:
k0 = 1- sin ø or
ka = (1-sin ø) / (1+ sin ø) ; kp =( 1+ sin ø)/( 1- sin ø)
Where ø – angle of shearing resistance
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aKseZc-d-
zQhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4eTr5ZFRZQ
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 522 to 523 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –377 to 402 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 44
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Culmann Graphical method

Introduction:
 CULMANN'S (1866)developed a method which is more general than rehbanns method
 It can be used to determine coulombs earth pressure for ground surface for any
configuration for various types of surcharge loads and the layered backfills.
 The method of construction of the force triangle in a rotated orientation.
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Retaining wall
 Coulomb’s wedge theory
 Active and passive states
 Rankine’s theory
Detailed content of the Lecture:
CULMANN'S METHOD- GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
ACTIVE PRESSURE BY CULMANN'S METHOD FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS
Culmann's (1866) method is the same as the trial wedge method. In Culmann's method, the force
polygons are constructed directly on the ϕ-line AE taking AE as the load line.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Draw ϕ -line AE at an angle ϕ to the horizontal.
2. Lay off on AE distances, AV, A1, A2, A3, etc.to a suitable scale to represent the weight of
wedges ABV, A51, AS2, AS3, etc. respectively.
3. Draw lines parallel to AD from points V, 1, 2, 3 to intersect assumed rupture lines AV,
Al,A2, A3 at points V", I',2', 3', etc. respectively.
4. Join points V, 1', 2' 3' etc. by a smooth curve which is the pressure locus.
5. Select point C‘ on the pressure locus such that the tangent to the curve at this point is
parallel to the ϕ-line AE.
6. Draw C'C parallel to the pressure line AD. The magnitude of C'C in its natural units gives
the active pressure Pa.
7. Join AC" and produce to meet the surface of the backfill at C. AC is the rupture line. For the
plane backfill surface, the point of application of Pa is at a height of H/3 from the base of
the wall.
Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=whf_bhRvZk8https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhEZ8K
ac5fA
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 532 to 535 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –405 to 428 )

Course Teacher

Verified by HOD
 MUTHAYAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC & Affiliated to Anna University)
Rasipuram - 637 408, Namakkal Dist., Tamil Nadu

L - 45
LECTURE HANDOUTS

CIVIL III / V

Course Name with Code : FOUNDATION ENGINEERING - 19CEE12

Course Teacher : Mrs.R.SELVAPRIYA

Unit : V – RETAINING WALLS

Date of Lecture:

Topic of Lecture:Stability analysis of retaining walls

Introduction:
STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS
1. Check for sliding
2. Check for overturning
3. Check for bearing capacity failure
4. Check for base shear failure
The minimum factors of safety for the stability of the wall are:
1. Factor of safety against sliding =1.5
2. Factor of safety against overturning = 2.0
3. Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure = 3.0
Prerequisite knowledge for Complete understanding and learning of Topic:
 Retaining wall
 Coulomb’s wedge theory
 Active and passive states
 Rankine’s theory
Detailed content of the Lecture:
Conditions of Stability of Retaining Walls
To ensure the stability of a retaining wall, the following conditions or requirements must be met:
 The wall should be structurally capable of resisting the pressure applied to it.
 The wall should be so properly proportioned that it will not get overturned by the lateral
 pressure.
 The wall should be safe from consideration of sliding, i.e., the wall should not be pushed
out by the lateral pressure.
 The weight of wall together with the force resulting from the earth pressure acting on it,
should not stress its foundation to a value greater than safe bearing capacity of the soil.
 It is important to prevent accumulation of water behind a retaining wall. The backing
material should be suitably drained by providing weep holes.
 Long masonry retaining walls should be provided with expansion joints located at 6 to 9m
apart.
 Weep holes may be provided to relieve water pressure

Video Content / Details of website for further learning (if any):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LIAAhaeeA8Qhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xplAm
WV39A8
Important Books/Journals for further learning including the page nos.:
1. Dr.B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Arun Kumar Jain., Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd,
Sixteenth Edition, 2005. ( Page no – 538 to 543 )
2. BrajaM. Das., Priciples of Foundation Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning,
2015. ( Page no –380 to 382 )

Course Teacher

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