Module 2 Waste Generation Aspects

STRUCTURE
Content
2.1 Waste Stream Assessment (WSA)
2.1.1 Rationale for analysis
2.1.2 Field investigation

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2.2 Waste Generation and Composition

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2.2.1 Waste generation
2.2.2 Waste composition

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2.2.3 Factors causing variation
2.3 Waste Characteristics

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2.3.1 Physical characteristics
2.3.2 Chemical characteristics

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2.4 Health and Environmental Effects
2.4.1 Public health effect

2.5 Case Study

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2.4.2 Environmental effect

2.5.1 Comparative assessment ofWaste generation and Composition in Developed and

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developing Country.
2.5.2 Case Study: Status of Waste Generation in Bangalore
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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After completing this Unit, you should be able to:

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● carry out waste stream analysis;

● explain waste generation,
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● composition and the factors affecting them;

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● discuss the physical and chemical characteristics of solid wastes;

● determine the effects of poor waste management on public health and the environment.
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

2.1 WASTE STREAM ASSESSMENT (WSA)
Waste stream assessment (WSA) is a means to determine the basic aspects of quantity (i.e.,
the amount of waste generated in the community, both in terms of weight and volume),
composition (i.e., the different components of waste stream) and sources of wastes.

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The information relating to these basic aspects of wastes is vital for making decisions about the
SWM system, finance and regulations. Put differently, an assessment of waste stream is essential
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in the analyses of shortand long-term problems within the local waste management system. It
also helps in targeting waste management activities and setting goals for different elements of a
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waste management plan.

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Waste stream assessment, however, is not a one-time activity. It is a continuous and dynamic
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process, because the characteristics of wastes differ depending on the regions, communities,
seasons, etc.
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2.1.1 Rationale for analysis

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The reasons for the analysis of waste composition, characteristics and quantity
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include the following (Phelps, et al., 1995) or (Purpose of WSA)

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(i) It provides the basic data for the planning, designing and operation of the management
systems.
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(ii) An ongoing analysis of the data helps detect changes in composition, characteristics and
quantities of wastes, and the rates at which these changes take place, which facilitates effective
implementation of management systems.

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

(iii) It quantifies the amount and type of materials suitable for processing, recovery and recycling.
(iv) It provides information that helps in deciding appropriate technologies and equipment.
(v) The forecast trends assist designers and manufacturers in the production of collection
vehicles and equipment suitable for future needs.

In the absence of reliable basic data, carrying out field investigations becomes necessary (Phelps
et al., 1995).

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2.1.2 Field investigation

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In the absence of reliable basic data, carrying out field investigations becomes necessary.

Field investigations may take any one or a combination of the following forms:
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(i) Waste sorting: Sorting of wastes into predetermined components takes place at disposal sites
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for weighing and sampling in order to determine the percentage of each component and the
physical and chemical characteristics of wastes. It is carried out manually, and the sample size for
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analysis is between 100 and 150 kg.

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

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(ii) Vehicle weighing: Vehicles are weighed when they enter the disposal sites loaded, and exit

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the sites empty. The weighing of loaded and unloaded vehicles is accomplished with a weighing
scale or weighbridge.

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(iii) Field visits: This means visiting institutional and industrial sites to identify wastes being
generated and disposal methods. Field visits involve visiting the facility, i.e., industry, institutions,
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etc., viewing the waste handling system and completing a questionnaire with the assistance of
the plant manager or senior technical personnel who usually investigate wastes from industries
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and institutions.
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Collection of samples in sealed polythene bags follows for laboratory analysis to identify physical
and chemical characteristics. Each sample may be in the range of 1.5 to 5 kg.
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2.2 WASTE GENERATION AND COMPOSITION

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Information on waste quantity and composition is important in evaluating alternatives in terms of

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equipment, systems, plans and management programmes.

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For example, if wastes generated at a commercial facility consist of only paper products, the
appropriate equipment are shredders and balers. Similarly, on the basis of quantity generated, we
can plan appropriate means for separation, collection and recycling programmes. That is to say,

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

the success of SWM depends on the appropriate assessment of the quantity of wastes
generated.

2.2.1 Waste generation

Waste generation encompasses those activities in which waste, be it solid or semi-solid material,
no longer has sufficient economic value for its possessor to retain it.

The processing of raw materials is the first stage when wastes are generated, and waste

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generation continues thereafter at every step in the process as raw materials are converted into

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final products for consumption.

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Figure 1.1 below shows a simplified material-flow diagram indicating the path of generation of

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solid wastes (Tchobanoglous, et al., 1977):

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Figure 1.1 suggests that we can reduce the amount of solid waste by limiting the consumption of
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raw materials and increasing the rate of recovery and reuse.

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There needs to be, therefore, a societal change in the perception of wastes. This sounds simple.
But, implementing changes in the society is difficult, unless appropriate management solutions
are provided. That said, we also must note that the changes in waste generation contribute to
changes in waste composition.

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

2.2.2 Waste composition
Some of the general observations associated with the composition of wastes include the
following:

● The major constituents are paper and decomposable organic materials.

● More often than not, metal, glass, ceramics, textile, dirt and wood form part of the
composition, and their relative proportion depends on local factors.

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● Average proportions of the constituents reaching the disposal sites are consistent and

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urban wastes are fairly constant although subject to long-term changes such as seasonal

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variations.

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Waste composition varies with the socio-economic status within a particular community, since
income, for example, determines life style, composition pattern and cultural behavior

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(http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/SWMTR/TR85.html).

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Table 2.1 illustrates this phenomenon in India:
Table 2.1 Typical Waste Composition: Low/High Income Population
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Waste composition also depends on the moisture content, density and relative distribution of
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municipal wastes, as shown in Table 2.2 below, and is important for the characterisation of solid
waste for most applications (Ali, et al., 1999):
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Table 2.2 Solid Wastes: Typical Composition, Moisture and Density

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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

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Note that the density of waste changes as it moves from the source of generation to the point of
ultimate disposal, and such factors as storage methods, salvaging activities, exposure to weather,
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handling methods and decomposition influence the density. In short, predicting changes of waste
composition is as difficult as forecasting waste quantities.
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2.2.3 Factors causing variation in quantity and composition or Factors

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affecting waste Generation

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As we know, wastes cause pollution. While the nature of wastes determines the type and
intensity of pollution, it also helps us decide on the appropriate application, engineering design
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and technology for management. For example, the nature of wastes has implications for
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collection, transport and recycling. For effective SWM, therefore, we not only need information
about the present but also the expected future quantity and composition of wastes. There are
several factors, which affect the present as well as the future waste quantity and composition
(Tchobanoglous, et al., 1977), and some of which are listed below:

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

 1. Geographic location: The influence of geographic location is related primarily to different
climates that can influence both the amount of certain types of solid wastes generated
and the collection operation. For instance, substantial variations in the amount of yard and
garden wastes generated in various parts of India are related to the climate.
2. Seasons: Seasons of the year have implications for the quantities and composition of
certain types of solid wastes. For example, the growing season of vegetables and fruits
affect the quantities of food wastes.

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3. Collection frequency: A general observation is that in localities, where there are ultimate

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collection services, more wastes are collected. Note that this does not mean that more
wastes are generated. For example, if a homeowner has access to only one or two

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containers per week, due to limited container capacity, he or she will store newspapers or

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other materials in some specified storage area. However, the same homeowner will tend
to throw them away, if there is access to unlimited container services.

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4. Population diversity: The characteristics of the population influence the quantity and
composition of waste generated. The amount of waste generated is more in low-income

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areas compared to that in high-income areas.
Extent of salvaging and recycling: The existence of salvaging and recycling operations
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within a community definitely affects the quantity of wastes collected.
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6. Public attitude: Significant reduction in the quantity of solid waste is possible, if and when
people are willing to change – on their own volition – their habits and lifestyles to
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conserve the natural resources and to reduce the economic burden associated with the
management of solid wastes.
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7. Legislation: This refers to the existence of local and state regulations concerning the use
and disposal of specific materials and is an important factor that influences the
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composition and generation of certain types of wastes. The Indian legislation dealing with
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packing and beverage container materials is an example.

2.3 Waste Characteristics

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1. Physical Characteristics
2. Chemical Characteristics
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1. Physical Characteristics
Information and data on the physical characteristics of solid wastes are important for the
selection and operation of equipment and for the analysis and design of disposal facilities.

Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

i) Density: Density of waste i.e mass per unit volume, is a critical factor in the design of a solid
waste management system, example - Design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection
and transport vehicles etc.

Density=Mass/volume= kg/m3

ii) Moisture Content: Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water (wet weight -
dry weight) to the total weight of the wet waste.

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moisture increased the weight of solid waste, and there by, the cost of collection and transport.

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Moisture content (%) = ((wet weight - Dry weight) /wet weight)x100

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iii) size: Measurement of size distribution of particles in waste stream is important because of its
Significance in the design of mechanical separators and shredders.

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The Physical properties that are essential to analyse waste disposed at landfills are.

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Field capacity -The field capacity of MSW in the total amount of moisture which can be retained
in a waste sample subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical measure because water in excess of
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field capacity will form leachate and leachate can be a major problem in landfills.
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Permeability of compacted waste. - The hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes is an
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important physical property because it governs the movement of liquid and gasses in a landfill.
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permeability depends on the other properties of the solid material includes pore size distribution,
surface area and porosity.
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Porosity - It represents the amount of voids per unit volume of material.

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Compressibility of solid waste - Degree of physical changes of the suspended solids or filter
cake when subjected to pressure.
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🔺HT = 🔺Hi+🔺 Hc +🔺H 𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑎

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🔺HT= Total settlement

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🔺Hi = immediate settlement

🔺 Hc = Consolidation settlement
🔺H 𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑎= Secondary compression or creep
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

2. Chemical Characteristics of solid waste

1.Heating value - An evaluation of the potential of waste material for use as fuel for incineration
requires a determination of its heating values expressed as kilojoules per kilogram (kj/kg). The
heating value is determined experimentally using the Bomb calorimeter test, in which the heating
generated at a constant temperature of 20͒C from the combustion of a dry sample is measured.

Typical Heating and Inert residue values

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Component Inert residue(%) Heating Value (kj/kg)

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Food waste 5 4500

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Paper 6 16500

Cardboard 5 16000

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Plastic 10 32500

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2.Ultimate Analysis- This refers to an analysis of waste to determine the proportion of carbon,
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hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and Sulphur and the analysis is done to make a mass balance
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calculation for a chemical or thermal process.

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Municipal solid waste:- A typical ultimate analysis

Element Range (% Dry Weight)

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Carbon 25-30
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Hydrogen 2.5-6
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Oxygen 1.5-30
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Nitrogen 0.25-1.2
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Sulphur 0.02-0.12

Ash 12-30

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Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

proximate analysis -This is important in evaluating the combustion properties of wastes or a
waste or refuse derived fuel. The fractions of interest are

● Moisture content, which adds weight to the waste without increasing its heating value.
● Ash which adds weight without generating any heat during combustion.
● volatile matter i.e that portion of the waste that is converted to gasses before and during
combustion.
● Fixed carbon, which represents the carbon remaining on the surface grates as charcoal

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high percent of fixed carbon in the waste requires higher time retention in the furnace.

Lipids - This class of compounds includes fats, oils and grease and the principal sources of lipids

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are garbage, cooking oils and fats. Lipids have high heating values about 35000 kj/kg.

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Carbohydrates - These are found primarily in food and yard waste, which encompass sugar and

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polymer of sugars (ex. starch, cellulose), carbohydrates are readily biodegradation to products
such as carbon dioxide, water and methane.

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Proteins - These are compounds containing Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen and consist of an
organic acid with Substituted amine group (NH2). Found in food and yard waste
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Natural fibers - These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes and include natural
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compounds, Cellulose and lignin that are resistant to biodegradation.

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Synthetic organic material (plastics) - Accounting for 1-10%. Plastics have become a significant
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component of solid waste in recent years. They are highly resistant to biodegradation. Burning of
plastic produces dioxin and acid gas.
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Problem :
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

Solution:

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2.4 HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

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An effective solid waste management system is necessary to avoid public health disasters,
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spread of disease by insects and vectors and adverse effects on water and air. Solid waste
workers are the most exposed to the risks of parasitic infections and accidents, and therefore, a
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SWM system must include proper mechanisms to avoid these incidents.

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2.4.1 Public health effect

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(i) Disease vectors and pathways: Wastes dumped indiscriminately provide the food and
environment for thriving populations of vermin, which are the agents of various diseases. The
pathways of pathogen transmission from wastes to humans are mostly indirect through insects –
flies, mosquitoes and roaches and animals – rodents and pigs. Diseases become a public health

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Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

problem when they are present in the human and animal population of surrounding communities,
or if a carrier transmits the etiological agent from host to receptor.

(ii) Flies: Most common in this category is the housefly, which transmits typhoid, salmonellosis,
gastro-enteritis and dysentery. Flies have a flight range of about 10 km, and therefore, they are
able to spread their influence over a relatively wide area.

(iii) Mosquitoes: They transmit diseases such as malaria, filaria and dengue fever. Since they
breed in stagnant water, control measures should centre on the elimination of breeding places

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such as tins, cans, tyres, etc. Proper sanitary practices and general cleanliness in the community
help eliminate the mosquito problems caused by the mismanagement of solid waste.

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(iv) Roaches: These cause infection by physical contact and can transmit typhoid, cholera and

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amoebiasis. The problems of roaches are associated with the poor storage of solid waste.

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(v) Rodents: Rodents (rats) proliferate in uncontrolled deposits of solid wastes, which provide a
source of food as well as shelter. They are responsible for the spread of diseases such as plague,

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murine typhus, leptospirosis, histoplasmosis, rat bite fever, dalmonelosis, trichinosis, etc. The
fleas, which rats carry, also cause many diseases. This problem is associated not only with open
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dumping but also poor sanitation.
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(vi) Occupational hazards: Workers handling waste are at risk of accidents related to the nature
of material and lack of safety precautions. The sharp edges of glass and metal and poorly
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constructed storage containers may inflict injuries to workers. It is, therefore, necessary for waste
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handlers to wear gloves, masks and be vaccinated. The infections associated with waste
handling, include: skin and blood infections, eye and respiratory infections ,intestinal infections,
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chronic respiratory diseases, bone and muscle disorders resulting from the handling of heavy
containers and the loading heights of vehicles.
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(vii) Animals: Apart from rodents, some animals (e.g., dogs, cats, pigs, etc.) also act as carriers of
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disease.
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2.4.2 Environmental effect

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Besides causing health disorders that we have touched upon in Subsection 2.4.1, inadequate and
improper waste management causes adverse environmental effects such as the following:

(i) Air pollution: Burning of solid wastes in open dumps or in improperly designed incinerators
emit pollutants (gaseous and particulate matters) to the atmosphere. Studies show that the

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Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

environmental consequences of open burning are greater than incinerators, especially with
respect to aldehydes and particulates. Emissions from an uncontrolled incinerator system include
particulate matter, Sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, lead
and mercury. Discharge of arsenic, cadmium and selenium is to be controlled, since they are toxic
at relatively low exposure levels. Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), commonly called
dioxins and furans, are of concern because of their toxicity, carcinogenicity and possible
mutagenicity.

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(ii) Water and land pollution: Water pollution results from dumping in open areas and storm

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water drains, and improper design, construction and/or operation of a sanitary landfill. Control of
infiltration from rainfall and surface runoff is essential in order to minimise the production of

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leachate.

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Pollution of groundwater can occur as a result of:

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● the flow of groundwater through deposits of solid waste at landfill sites;
● percolation of rainfall or irrigation waters from solid wastes to the water table;
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diffusion and collection of gases generated by the decomposition of solid wastes.
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(iii) Visual pollution: The aesthetic sensibility is offended by the unsightliness of piles of wastes
on the roadside. The situation is made worse by the presence of scavengers rummaging in the
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waste. Waste carelessly and irresponsibly discarded in public thoroughfares, along roads and
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highways and around communal bins (i.e., makeshift containers, without lids, used for the storage
of residential, commercial and institutional wastes) gives easy access to animals scavenging for
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food. The solution to this social problem undoubtedly lies in the implementation of public
education at all levels – primary, secondary, tertiary and adult, both short- and long-term, and in
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raising the status of public health workers and managers in solid waste management.
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(iv) Noise pollution: Undesirable noise is a nuisance associated with operations at landfills,
incinerators, transfer stations and sites used for recycling. This is due to the movement of
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vehicles, the operation of large machines and the diverse operations at an incinerator site. The
impacts of noise pollution may be reduced by careful siting of SWM operations and by the use of
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noise barriers.
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(v) Odour pollution: Obnoxious odours due to the presence of decaying organic matter are
characteristic of open dumps. They arise from anaerobic decposition processes and their major
constituents are particularly offensive. Proper landfill coomvering eliminates this nuisance.

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Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

(vi) Explosion hazards: Landfill gas, which is released during anaerobic decomposition
processes, contains a high proportion of methane (35 – 73%). It can migrate through the soil over
a considerable distance, leaving the buildings in the vicinity of sanitary landfill sites at risk, even
after the closure of landfills. Several methods are available for control of landfill gas, such as
venting, flaring and the use of impermeable barriers.

2.5.1. COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF WASTE GENERATION AND

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COMPOSITION OF DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING NATION

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Waste generation in developed nations.

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Country Population in Waste generation Waste per capita
Million in MT per day

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USA 327 293 2.24 kg/day

CANADA ivil 36 34 1.94 kg/day

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GERMANY 83 50 1.72 kg/day
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CHINA 1.41 Billion 310 0.43 kg/day

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Waste Composition in Developed Countries.

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Country Biodegrada Paper & Glass Plastic Metal Rubber Wood Others
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USA 33.70% 23.05% 4.19% 12.20% 8.76 8.96 6.19 2.95

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CANADA 27.7 10 1.8 13.4 3.2 2.7 8.6 12.4

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GERMANY 43.3 17.6 5.4 13 4.6 3.8 5.4 1.3

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CHINA 46.8 11.3 3.3 12.5 1.1 3.5 16.2 2.3

Waste generation in developing Country.

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Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

 Country Population in Waste generation Waste per capita
Million in MT per day

INDIA 1.39 Billion 162 0.54 kg/day

IRAN 85 71 0.69 kg/day

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Waste Composition in Developing Countries.

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Country Biodegrada Paper Plastic Metal Glass Textil Others

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INDIA 52.3% 13.8 7.9 1.5 0.9 1 22%

IRAN 69.8 7.4 7.8 1 1 2 13%

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2.5.2. CASE STUDY: STATUS OF WASTE GENERATION IN BANGALORE
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Bangalore, also known as the Garden City, is one of the fastest growing metropolitan cities in
South India. It is the state capital of Karnataka and the sixth largest city in India. Topographically,
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Bangalore is located in the south deccan and physically, has grown on watershed running
through the middle of the Mysore Plateau from west to east which serves as the main water
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parting of the state at an average elevation of 900 meters above sea level. The city gets
moderate rainfall of around 900 mm largely between June and October. On account of its
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elevation, Bangalore is bestowed with a salubrious and equable climate comparable to those of
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temperate regions.

The city covers the local planning area of 500 sq. kms. Out of this, 226.16 sq. kms are developed
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at present. In 1991, its population was 4.16 million and has grown over 6 million, as per recent
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projected population estimates. Besides, the city has a floating population of over 0.5 million. It is
a fast growing city beset with the usual problems of inadequate waste management, due to
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constraints such as lack of finance and other resources, deficiencies in equipment and workforce
and paucity of space (for waste disposal).

The Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BMP), the erstwhile Bangalore City Corporation (BCC), is
concerned with the prime areas of public health, solid waste management including health care

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Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

waste and sanitation, education, horticulture, etc. Working with non-governmental and voluntary
organisations of all stakeholders in a participatory approach, BMP is striving to implement
suggestions towards an improved SWM.

SWM is a vital function of the Health Department, supported by the Engineering Department of
BMP and the health officer heads the SWM wing. In the present context, SWM in BMP essentially
means the cleaning of streets, emptying dustbins, transportation of wastes to city outskirts and
burning them in open areas for their disposal (Attarwalla, 1993, Gotoh, 1989, Development, 1998,

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Ogawa, 1989, and Vagale, 1997).

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The waste generation and composition details of Bangalore are as follows:

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(i) Waste generation:

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Bangalore produces over 2500 tonnes of solid waste per day and the Municipal Corporation has

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miserably inadequate infrastructure in managing the disposal of solid wastes generated. It is
estimated that the per capita generation of solid waste works out to 0.59 kg/day. The sources of

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waste generation and the amount generated at each source are given in Table 2.6.
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(ii) Waste composition: The composition of wastes in Bangalore has wide variations in the
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proportion of contents. It varies from area to area, depending upon the socio-economic
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conditions and the population density. The composition of the total wastes generated in
Bangalore city is given in Table 2.7.

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Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.

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In Bangalore, there are 401 slum pockets identified which come under the jurisdiction of three

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different authorities, viz., Bangalore City Corporation - 64 slums, Bangalore Development
Authority – 64 slums, and Karnataka Slum Clearance Board – 273 slums. Fifteen percent of the

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city’s population lives in these slums (Comprehensive Development Plan (Revised) Bangalore
Report, 1995, p. 25). The slum locations are generally found to be least desirable from the point of

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view of habitation – being low lying areas, tank beds, quarry pits, near railway lines and
cemeteries. The authorities have been unable to clear the garbage from most of the slums mainly
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due to the slum dwellers’ practice of throwing their wastes into drains, and only part of the waste
generated is available for collection. There are 12 large vegetable and fruit markets other than a
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number of small groups of pavement vegetable vendors. Approximately, these markets are
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producing more than 150 tonnes of wastes daily. In addition to this, large quantities of wastes get
generated from slaughterhouses, food packing industries and cold storage facilities.
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Prepared by Dr. ZOYA FATHIMA, Associate Professor & HOD, Civil Engineering Department,and

Mrs. ARPITHA L M, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department BGSCET.