UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY & INCLUSION

I. DEFINITION

Diversity is the uniqueness of each person, encompassing physical, beliefs, values,

and other factors that make one person different from another. Visible differences include

physical traits like skin color, hair color, and gender, while invisible differences are

influenced by beliefs, mindsets, values, and personality. These differences are often based

on biases, but they are not always connected. Understanding a person's uniqueness is

crucial for recognizing and appreciating their differences. The English term "diversity"

captures the essence of differences in a group.

Diversity is the Latin word diverter, which means to turn away, separate, oppose

(Latin Dictionary n.d). The Collins dictionary defines diversity as “the state or quality of

being different or varied; a variety or assortment; a point of difference; the inclusion of

people of different races, genders, religions, etc. in a group; the relation that holds between

two entities when and only when they are not identical; the property of being numerically

distinct. In the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s

(UNESCO) Guide on Ensuring Inclusion and Equity in Education (2017), diversity is

defined as ‘people’s differences which may relate to their race, ethnicity, gender, sexual

orientation, language, culture, religion, mental and physical ability, class, and immigration

status.” (UNESCO 2017).

Diversity is a crucial issue in our global village, requiring understanding and

acceptance of individual differences. As our communities become more diverse, it's

essential to explore areas that connect us and foster collaboration. Recognizing and

celebrating individual uniqueness allows for respecting experiences, innovation, and

collaboration. Mastering these skills can lead to productivity, cooperation, and unity,

fostering tolerance and cooperation.

II. LODEN’S DIVERSITY WHEEL

In 1990, Marilyn Loden and Judy Rosener developed the Diversity Wheel model to

address the growing diversity in America's labor force. The model aimed to help people

understand how group-based differences influence their social identities and how they can

be managed to create productive working relationships. The model was revised in 1996 to

include additional aspects of group differences and recognize the experiences of those

who identified these aspects as most important to their personhood. The Diversity Wheel

consists of primary and secondary dimensions of diversity, which affect a person's beliefs,

expectations, and life experiences. The core dimensions, which are influenced by

significant experiences, are the strongest and are the most likely to change. The secondary

dimensions, on the other hand, are influenced by factors like geographical location, marital

status, religious beliefs, parental status, income, education, work experience, military

experience, first language, family status, and work and communication styles.

Understanding these dimensions can help individuals make their voices heard and

contribute to a more inclusive and diverse workforce.

 ABILITY (AND DISABILITY) AS A DIMENSION OF DIVERSITY

Concept of Diversity

 Encompasses acceptance and respect. It means understanding that each individual is

unique, and recognizing our individual differences.

 It is about understanding each other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and

celebrating dimensions of diversity contained within each individual.

Dimensions

 Race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical abilities,

religious beliefs, or other ideologies. The exploration of these differences in a safe, positive,

and nurturing environment.

Abilities Vs. Disabilities

ABILITY

 the quality or state of being able to do something; competence in doing something

 natural aptitude or acquired proficiency

DISABILITY

 any condition that prevents, delays, or interferes with a child’s normal achievement and

development

 a physical, mental, cognitive, or developmental condition that impairs, interferes with, or

limits a person’s ability to engage in certain tasks or actions or participate in typical

daily activities and interactions.

MODELS OF DISABILITY

Models of disability can be condensed into two main approaches: the individual approaches,

which see the person as having a problem, and the social approaches, which see society as

having a problem, being unable to accommodate all people.

The four main models of disability can be defined as: the charity model; the medical model;

the social model; and the human rights model. The first two focus on the disability of the

individual as the problem, while the other two focus on external factors that need to be changed or

adapted to create an enabling environment.

Note: The charity model and the medical model are outdated and shouldn't be applied anymore.

To act in compliance with the CRPD, every work must be based on the social and human rights

model. So is this Inclusive Participation Toolbox.

 The charity model identifies the individual as having a problem and tends to view persons

with disabilities as victims or objects of pity, their impairment being their main identifier.

They are seen as recipients and beneficiaries of services. This approach sees people with

disabilities as passive, tragic, suffering, and requiring care. It assumes that it is the

community and society’s responsibility to arrange all services for these vulnerable people

and know what is good for them.

 The medical model also focuses on the individual and sees disability as a health condition,

an impairment located in the individual. It assumes that by addressing the medical ailment,

this will resolve the problem. In this approach, a person with a disability is primarily defined

as a patient in terms of their diagnosis requiring medical intervention. Disability is seen as a

disease or defect that is at odds with the norm and that needs to be fixed or cured.

 The social model was developed as a reaction against the individualistic approaches of

the charity and medical models. It focuses on society and considers that the problem lies
 there. Due to barriers, be they social, institutional, economic, or political, people with

disabilities are excluded. This approach focuses on reforming society, removing barriers to

participation, raising awareness, and changing attitudes, practices, and policies.

 The rights-based model is based on the social model and shares the same premise that it

is society that needs to change. This approach focuses on equity and rights and looks to

include all people equally within society: women and men, girls and boys, regardless of

background or any type of characteristic. It is founded on the principle that human rights for

all human beings are an inalienable right and that all rights are applicable and indivisible. It

takes the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) as its main

reference point and prioritizes ensuring that duty-bearers at all levels meet their

responsibilities. This approach sees people with disabilities as the central actors in their

own lives, as decision-makers, citizens, and rights holders. As with the social model, it

seeks to transform unjust systems and practices.

 ADDRESSING DIVERSITY THROUGH THE YEARS: SPECIAL AND

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

I. Models of Disability

Disability has been a topic of discussion for centuries, with various cultural narratives

and historical accounts of its existence. However, it is often seen as a source of fear and

ridicule, especially for people with disabilities. Historically, people have exhibited a similar

pattern of treatment towards disability, with individuals with physical disabilities being first

noticed and then those with less apparent conditions. This led to segregation, exclusion,

isolation, and violence. These practices, now considered discriminatory and violating

human rights, were prevalent in various aspects of society, including living spaces,

healthcare, education, and work. The status of persons with disabilities (PWDs) has been a

subject of debate, with some viewing them as threats and others as objects of pity or

ridicule. Understanding human behavior in relation to cultural, historical, and socio-

structural contexts is crucial for understanding their perspectives on disability

Figure 2.1. The evolution of models of disability

Smart's 2004 study highlights the importance of disability models in providing definitions,

explanations, policy importance, academic discipline definition, shaping self-identity, and providing

insight into prejudices and discrimination. These models are not value-neutral, shape self-identity,

and reveal how society unconsciously responds to disability.

A. The Moral/Religious Model

The medieval age, which began in AD 476 and ended in the early 1800s, saw

the church as a significant figure in Europe. The moral/religious model of disability,

which viewed disability as either a blessing or a curse, was prevalent during this

period. Parents who bore children with disabilities were seen as either punishing

them for sin or blessing the family. The middle ground was to see disability as a test

of faith and an opportunity to redeem oneself through endurance, resilience, and

piety. This model is considered the oldest model of disability and is evident in many

religious traditions. In some cultures, disability is equated with sin, evilness, or

spiritual ineptness, leading to isolation and exclusion from communal events.

However, for those who view disability as a blessing, it can be seen as an

opportunity for character development.

B. The Biomedical/Individual Model

 The Copernican Revolution, a controversial discovery by Nicolaus

Copernicus, triggered significant changes in science, philosophy, theology, and

education. It paved the way for a shift in mindsets towards the biomedical model,

which views disabled individuals as ill and meant to be treated. This model views

disability as a medical problem residing in the individual, with the goals of

intervention being to cure and ameliorate the physical condition. The biomedical

model is a normative model based on a person's levels of deficiency compared to a

normative state, reinforcing the notion that those without disabilities are superior and

have primary responsibility for the welfare of the disabled. This perspective is still

ingrained in society today.

 Figure 2.2. The Medical Model of Disability.

In the 5th century, Europe saw the emergence of special schools for persons with

disabilities (PWDs), initially catering to sensory impairments like deafness and blindness. These

schools focused on vocational skills development, reflecting the biomedical model. Institutions like

asylums or hospitals were established for PWDs who were too difficult to manage.

C. The Functional/Rehabilitation Model

The Functional/Rehabilitation Model, a concept developed by scientists from

Copernicus to the early 1900s, focuses on the needs of persons with disabilities

(PWD) to reintegrate them into society. It aims to provide professional assistance to

those with acquired disabilities to help them regain functionality. The biomedical

model often suggests habilitation, which is given to those with congenital or early-

onset disabilities to maximize function. However, the functional/rehabilitation model

focuses on professional assistance to those with acquired disabilities to regain

functionality. Both models perpetuate societal values of convention, performance,

and achievement, making PWD vulnerable and easy targets for charitable work. This

collaboration can undermine their dignity and participation in everyday decisions.

D. The social model

The social model of disability posits that disability is a social construct, with

standards and limitations placed on specific groups of people. This perspective

views
 disability as a result of society's lack of understanding of individual differences, rather

than a deficiency. The social model of disability suggests that disability is a social

construct, with standards and limitations placed on specific groups of people. This

perspective influences everything from government laws to education, employment

opportunities, and access to communal facilities. For example, Mara, a person with

paraplegia, should be able to go around on her own, but her town provides

continuous access for those with physical disabilities. Jana, who also has paraplegia,

is able to go around by herself due to the continuous access provided by her town.

The social model of disability suggests that what truly disabling is not the physical

condition, but the lack of opportunities and restrictions given to a person, as argued

by the social model.

Figure 2.3. The Social Model of Disability

The World Health Organization (1980) distinguishes between disability and impairment,

with impairment being a loss or abnormality of a psychological or anatomical structure or function,

and disability being a restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity within the range considered

normal for a human being. The social model suggests that impairment should be seen as a normal

aspect of life, and society should plan for potential impairments to prevent disabling anyone. This

could change the way we design systems and environments, as the cultural habit of focusing on

the person's condition rather than the built environment can lead to problems.

E. Rights-Based Model and Twin Track Approach

The rights-based model of disability is a framework that emphasizes the

human dignity of Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) and their rights as human beings.

It recognizes their vulnerability and aims to uphold their identities and rights. The

rights-based approach to education focuses on ensuring access to education as a

basic human right. Key actors involved in this model include the government, the

child, parents, and teachers. A twin-track approach combining the social and rights-
 based models allows for holistic changes and individual needs to be promoted, such

as providing disability-specific programs for PWDs.

II. What is Special Needs Education?

Special needs education is the process of teaching someone, especially in schools,

colleges, or universities, following a specific sequence. It aims to prepare individuals for

formal, systematic, and rigorous learning in elementary, secondary, and tertiary schools.

The goal of education is to become a "good person" and become more capable than when

they started. Education plays a fundamental role in personal and social development, and it

addresses problems such as poverty, oppression, and war. The International Commission

on Education for the 21st Century outlines four aspects of learning: learning in order to

know, learning in order to do, learning so we can live harmoniously with others, and

learning in order to be

However, statistical data shows that people possess different aptitudes and skill

levels depending on societal standards or expectations. This pathology of difference refers

to the difference in abilities and skill levels between the average population and those at the

extremes. Special education addresses this reality by addressing learner differences and

ensuring equal access to universal public education for exceptional learners.

Figure 2.4. The Normal Distribution of Intelligence

 The medical model remains the default framework for societies, making it difficult to shift

paradigms and addressing learner diversity. Inclusive education, which is essential for nation-

building, is crucial for ensuring quality education accessible to all learners.

III. Why Inclusion?

Inclusive education is a practice that places students with disabilities in general

education classrooms alongside developing children under the supervision of a general

education teacher. It is rooted in special needs education and is based on the belief that

every child has an inherent right to be educated equally with their peers. The global arena

has been vocal in its support for children, persons with disabilities, and education since

1948. The Declaration of Education for All (EFA) in 1990 affirmed the right to education for

all children, and the UN Started Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with

Disabilities in 1993 affirmed this right. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action

on Special Needs Education in 1994 reiterated the importance of accommodating all

children, including the disabled, gifted, and marginalized.

IV. The 2030 Agenda

The 2030 Agenda emphasizes the need for a paradigm shift in education to embrace

diversity and improve the quality of education for all learners. Inclusive practices are

reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to ensure a better

future for everyone. SDG 4 is particularly important for the global education community,

requiring the removal of barriers to inclusion and promoting lifelong learning opportunities

for all.
 BUILDING INCLUSIVE SCHOOLS: A FRAMEWORK FOR DIVERSITY AND

EQUITY

A UNIFYING FRAMEWORK:

"It takes on the social model of disability as its starting point, builds on good practice, and

then organizes the index work around a cycle of activities that guide schools through stages of

preparation, investigation, development, and review" (UNESCO 2005).

The Dimensions and Sections in the Index

Dimension A: Creating Inclusive Cultures

Section A.1: Building Community

Three Dimensions of the Index (Booth and Aincow 2002)

Section A.2: Establishing Inclusive Values

Dimension B: Producing Inclusive Policies

Section B.1: Developing the School for All

Section B.2: Organizing Support for

Diversity Dimension C: Evolving Inclusive Practices

Section C.1: Orchestrating Learning

Section C.2: Mobilizing Resources

I. Creating Inclusive Cultures

Inclusion is as much the responsibility of society as it is the responsibility of schools.

In educational reform, stakeholders are those who are "invested in the welfare and success

of the school and its students." Stakeholders are important because they play a major role

in "connecting what is being taught in school to its surrounding community"

(www.edglossary.org.)

In 2017, UNESCO reported that there has been significant global improvement in

accessing education, specifically at the primary level, for the last 15 years. However, its

2016 Global Education Monitoring Report reveals that there are still an estimated 263

million children and youth aged 6–17 all around the world who are still not in school at this
 time. With increasing globalization and international migration, the problem pertaining to

inclusive education and how it affects PWDs could not be more real.

1. What Stakeholders Can Do

The rights-based approach to educational programming "insists that no

right can exist without a corresponding governmental orientation" (Van den

Brule-Balescut & Sandkull 2005).

The following are some steps stakeholders can take to create inclusive cultures:

Set the parameters for inclusion.

The government has identified key people and professions and highlighted important

factors leading to the success of inclusive education, i.e., the placement process, committees,

staffing and responsibilities, teacher training and compensation, incentives for private sector

participation, and collaboration of the Department of Education with other branches of

government.

Build key people.

The government recognizes the need for teacher training, both at the special needs

education and general education levels. It also pushes for the use of evidence-based teaching

frameworks, the provision of student assistance, and access to instructional materials.

Identify and eradicate barriers.

UNESCO's Quide for Inclusion (2005) advocates for the identification and removal of

obstacles that have to do with transforming prevailing attitudes and values on a systematic level.

The Philippine Government seems to be in consonance with this aspect in light of its existing

legislative policies that emphasize the undeniable importance of inclusion.

Common Barriers to Inclusion

 Attitudes, value systems, misconceptions, and societal norms can lead to prejudices and/or

actual resistance to implementing inclusive practices (UNESCO, 2005).

Physical barriers—the lack of a building, facility, transportation, or road accessibility—are

types of physical barriers that can literally affect one's mobility.

Curriculum: A rigid "one size fits all" type of curriculum that does not allow room for

individual differences can significantly stunt one's learning and growth opportunities.

Lack of teacher training and low teacher efficacy—whether training in teaching strategies,

using curriculum frameworks, or behavior classroom management—lack of training as well as low

confidence in one's own skills can directly affect how inclusive practices are implemented.

Poor language and communication—language barriers may also directly have implications

for how well inclusive practices are implemented. Lack of funding: enough funding allows for

training teachers as well as coming up with more appropriate programs, instructional materials, or

facilities; lack of funds can be limiting and debilitating.

Lack of policies—policies have the ability to unify beliefs and mobilize resources;

unfortunately, a lack of them can become a convenient justification for inaction.

Organization of educational system—centralized systems may have some type of

detachment in terms of implementing policies and seeing the reality of how much policies are

affecting learners and other stakeholders.

Too much focus on performance-based standards—schools have also reportedly refused

inclusion out of fear that the presence of learners with additional needs would pull down their

rankings in standardized tests.

2. Special Education vs. Mainstreaming vs. Inclusive Education

Part of what needs to occur when creating cultures is to also determine

distinctions among frameworks and practices. In the previous chapter, we

 discussed how special education is often regarded as segregated and

exclusive. It has to be noted, however, that this perception is entirely due to

the nature of addressing cases in a highly individualized way.

II. Producing inclusive policies

As reiterated in the previous chapters, the premise of inclusion starts with an acceptance

and embrace of diversity. For simultaneous paradigm shifts to happen among its education

stakeholders, schools must first create a new culture.

UNESCO (2005) realistically acknowledges that a societal change in attitude need not be

initially present in a community before inclusion can be fully practiced. Rather, it must be viewed

as a perspective or an ideal to work toward. The following is a list of other possible steps that

educators can take to facilitate the much-needed societal shift and inform policy: involve other

sectors of society. Current training and awareness campaigns seem to limit the movement toward

inclusion to a mere home-school relationship. At most, these are extended to the departments for

social welfare and health. For instance, those in the business, commercial, security, and religious

sectors must also be given representation in trainings. At the same time, they must be specific

enough to reach the local churches, the subdivision playgrounds, and the village stores. In recent

years, students at the tertiary level from various programs have been showing growing interest in

the PWD community. For instance, students belonging to architectural and interior design

programs have been working on these capstone projects where their main clients have additional

needs. The idea is for everyone, regardless of their training or exposure, to become more

sensitive and aware of the PWD population. The more aware a community is, the more it will be

able to help.

Collaborate
 Whether creating an academic program specific to a child with additional needs or creating

a new legislative bill for the PWD community, collaboration is crucial. Del Corro-Tiangco (2014)

states that general education teachers are trained in the general curriculum but would not know

how to teach and manage children with additional needs, while a special needs education teacher

would be equipped to handle atypical behaviors but would not know much about the general

education curriculum.

CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES

An inclusive culture embraces and celebrates our differences—differences in experiences,

backgrounds, and ways of thinking. In an educational setting, a school where every student,

regardless of ability and background, is included in every aspect of school life (classes, school

events, activities, and excursions) exercises an inclusive school culture.

According to the Index for Inclusion (school’s version), inclusive school culture involves

building community and establishing inclusive values. Different indicators show how an

educational institution practices inclusiveness as well as building a community wherein everyone

is welcome regardless of diversity. Everyone is made to feel welcome.

  Students help each other.

 Staff collaborates.

 Staff and students treat one another with respect.

 There is a partnership between staff and parents.

 All local communities are involved in the school.

According to Varinder Unlu in the third installment of her series on supporting specific

learning differences, inclusion is about how we structure our schools, our classrooms, and our

lessons so that all our students learn and participate together. An inclusive classroom creates a

supportive environment for all learners, including those with learning differences, and one that can

also challenge and engage gifted and talented learners by building a more responsive learning

environment. Inclusivity also means respecting people from all backgrounds and cultures. An

inclusive school or classroom can only be successful when all students feel they are truly part of

the school community. This can only happen through an open, honest discussion about

differences and understanding and respecting people of all abilities and backgrounds. An inclusive

environment is one where everyone feels valued. Thus, inclusive schools are willing to innovate

and take risks with new ideas.

On instilling or establishing inclusive values inside the educational institution, the indicators

can be the following:

 High expectations for all students.

 Staff, governors, students, and parents share a philosophy of inclusion.

 Students are equally valued.

 Staff and students treat one another as human beings as well as occupants of a ‘role’.

 Staff seeks to remove barriers to learning and participation in all aspects of the school.

 The school strives to minimize discriminatory practices.

5 inclusivity practices to consider

 1. Create a supportive, respectful environment; promote diversity and fairness.

2. Have high expectations of all your students.

3. Create a supportive peer culture both inside and outside the classroom.

4. Plan learning, which includes participation from everyone and encourages success.

5. Take a ‘community’ approach to learning and teaching.

The benefits of inclusive education

 All children can be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become

better prepared for life in the community as children and adults.

 It provides better learning opportunities. Children with varying abilities are often better

motivated when they learn in classes surrounded by other children.

 The expectations of all the children are higher. Successful inclusion attempts to develop an

individual’s strengths and gifts.

 It allows children to work on individual goals while being with other students age.

 It encourages the involvement of parents in the education of their children and the activities

of their local schools.

 It fosters a culture of respect and belonging. It also provides the opportunity to learn about

and accept individual differences.

 It provides all children with opportunities to develop friendships with one another.

Friendships provide role models and opportunities for growth.

By teaching our students the importance of inclusiveness, we can create a much more

tolerant and understanding environment, not just in the classroom and school but also in wider

society. Beliefs and Principles.

 COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS

Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by identifying

students who have additional needs and who may be at risk for developmental

disabilities. School guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, primary school

teachers, and community-based daycare workers are often the first to notice such

developmental delays in children. In other instances, the parents themselves notice the

delays and seek consultation with pediatricians and other specialists.

A. Pre-referral Process
 A child noted to have significant difficulties in relation to expected

competencies and developmental milestones may be referred by parents and

teachers for observational assessment. A team of professionals, known as a pre-

referral, is comprised of special education teachers, counselors, administrators, and

psychologists who collaborate to determine reasons for the observed challenges

(Hallahan et al. 2014). They collaborate to find ways to meet the needs of children

with developmental delays.

Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins with a pre-referral

process. Children with noted developmental delays and difficulties are identified

through observations and the use of norm- and criterion-referenced tests. They are

not immediately referred for special education testing but are first provided with the

necessary academic and behavioral support needed to address the noted

challenges. In his assessment model, Taylor (2009) explained that the initial step is

to determine teaching areas where a learner will benefit from additional support

through a variety of means.

Very young students who are at-risk or suspected to have additional needs may

also be identified through community-based screening. Child development and

social workers use developmental screening tools such as the Early Childhood Care

and Development Checklist, which covers what is expected of a child's typical

development.

Once a program of pre-referral intervention has been designed,

implementation and evaluation follow to determine how effective it is in addressing

the needs of the child. Figure 4.1 shows the pre-referral process and strategies.
 Figure 4-1. Pre-referral process

B. Pre-referral Strategies

Essential to a pre-referral intervention is the use of pre-referral strategies that

are designed to provide immediate instructional and/or behavior management

support to a child. Using such strategies lessens the number of cases referred for

special education and makes efficient use of time and financial resources that could

have been spent for special education assessment (Heward 2013). This will also

lessen the tendency for over-referrals to special education and waste time as

children wait to be tested rather than receive the instructional and behavioral

support they need.

Examples of pre-referral strategies are: observation of the child's behavior,

including interactions with parents, teachers, and peers; interviewing of parents and

teachers to gather more information about the child; review of school records; and

analysis of the child's academic output through error analysis, portfolio assessment,

and criterion-referenced and curriculum-based assessment (Taylor 2009).

Depending on the information gathered, corresponding changes can be made to

manage the child’s needs, such as the modification of the classroom environment

(e.g., seating arrangement, group change, and teacher's proximity in class),

instructional support, and relevant classroom and behavior management

(Mcloughlin & Lewis 2009).

If, despite the provision of additional support, struggles and difficulties persist,

then the child is referred for assessment either within the school, if such services

are available, or to a professional for further assessment. What is essential at this

point is that the teachers have implemented a variety of approaches and practices

to ensure that support is provided before formal assessment.

II. Assessment
 Assessment is the process of collecting information about a child’s strengths and

needs. It uses a problem-solving process that involves systematic collection as well as

interpretation of the data gathered (Salvia et al. 2013). Teachers and administrators

make instructional decisions based on the assessment results.

A. Assessment Purposes

Assessment has a variety of purposes in special and inclusive education. It

begins with the initial identification that was explained in the previous section in

Child Find and the pre-referral process. The results of an assessment are used to

decide on a child's educational placement and to plan instructional programs for a

child identified as having additional needs. Progress monitoring and evaluation of

teaching programs and services is another, the purpose of which is to determine

how effective programs are to assist the inclusive teacher and the special

education teacher (Giuliani & Pierangelo 2012). There are a variety of

assessment methods that regular and special education teachers can use. This

section covers the following: (1) interviews, (2) observations, (3) checklists or

rating scales, and (4) tests.

B. Methods of Assessment Test

School psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and other related

professionals use a variety of assessment tools to ensure that results are valid

and reliable. Norm-referenced tests are standardized assessments that compare

a child's performance with a representative sample of students of the same

chronological age. Such tests are rigorously made by a team. Results are

reported as percentile ranks and age and grade equivalent scores, which makes

it easier for professionals to determine class and individual performance. While

such quantitative reporting makes it easier to compare the test performance of

children in a class, it has its limitations in terms of its use in instructional planning.
 Intelligence Tests (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Students and Stanford-

Binet Intelligence Scale) and Achievement Tests (Wide Range Achievement

Tests and Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement) are examples of norm-

referenced assessments. On the other hand, criteria-reference tests compare a

child’s performance based on established standards and competencies and can

be used to describe student performance (Jennings et al. 2006, as cited in

Spinelli 2012). Scores are typically reported as simple numerical scores,

percentages of correct responses, letter grades, or graphic scores.

TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN

I. Child Development and its Importance

To ensure that a child meets his or her developmental milestones, it is crucial to observe

and monitor his or her development. The milestones or developmental skills that need to

be mastered usually act as a guide for idea development. It is done by checking

the progress of a child based on his or her age to see if the child is developing within

expectations. For others, checking the milestones can help detect any difficulties at a
 particular stage. Intervention can then be given, which can help in the development of a

child. Usually, it is the parents, teachers, and pediatricians who use the checklists.

II. Child Development Theories

During the early 20th century, interest in child development began, specifically that

which focused on detecting abnormalities. Certain theories were discovered based on

this interest in appreciating the growth that children experience from birth to

adolescence.

A. Psychosocial Development Theory of Erik Erikson

This is an eight-stage theory that describes the changes one goes through in a lifetime.

The main focus of Erikson’s theory is the conflicts or crises one experiences through social

interactions. Starting from birth, each person is faced with a conflict that needs to be

resolved since it has an impact on the function of the succeeding stages. If one successfully

overcomes the crisis of each stage, a psychological virtue emerges

Figure 5.1 Stages of Psychosocial Development

B. Cognitive Developmental Theory of Jean Piaget

This theory is concerned with the thought processes of a person and how they are used to

understand and interact with the environment. Piaget’s theory focuses on children’s intellectual

development and has four stages.

A. Sensorimotor Stage

From birth to two years old, a child’s knowledge is limited to his or her use of the

senses.

B. Preoperational Stage

From two to six years old, a child learns through the use of language. However, mental

manipulation of information does not take place yet.

C. Concrete Operational Stage

From 7 to 11 years old, a child begins to think logically and has a better understanding

of mental operations. However, abstract concepts are still difficult to understand.

D. Formal operational stage

From 12 years old to adulthood, a person has the ability to think in terms of abstract

concepts.

C. Sociocultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky

This theory believes that children learn actively through hands-on experiences. Vygotsky

highlights the importance of other people, such as parents, caregivers, and peers, in the

development of children. Culture plays an integral role as well. Interaction with others allows

for learning. According to the theory, the zone of proximal development is the portion in

between what one can do on his or her own and with help. Children best learn when they are

in this zone.

D. The Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura

This theory believes that learning takes place through observation and modeling. As a

child observes the actions of the people in his or her environment, new information is acquired

and new skills are developed.

III. Typical and Atypical Development

The development of a child usually follows a predictable pattern. There are certain skills and

abilities that are observed to gauge a child’s development that are called developmental

milestones. Examples of these are sitting, babbling, and following directions. However, each child

is unique. With this, not all reach a milestone at the same time, thus the terms typical and

atypical development. Let us define the two terms first before we look further into what makes

a child’s development, both typical and atypical.

The term typical development refers to the normal progression where children grow by acquiring

knowledge, skills, and behaviors called developmental milestones at a certain timeframe.

Atypical development is a term used when development does not follow the normal course.

More so, a child develops atypically when he or she reaches a milestone earlier or later than other

children his or her age.

There is no clear way to identify if a child is developing typically or atypically. However, there are

three commonly accepted principles of child development that one should look into. The principles

are as follows:

1. The rate of development differs among children.

2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly process.

3. Development takes place gradually.

IV. Domains of Development

The developmental milestones are categorized into four domains, namely, physical, social and

emotional, language, and cognitive.

The physical domain refers to the development of physical changes such as size and

strength. The development occurs in both gross and fine motor skills. The development of the

senses and their uses are also part of the physical domain, which is influenced by illness and

nutrition.

A child’s experience, expression, and management of emotions, along with the ability to establish

positive relationships with others, refer to the social-emotional domain. This includes both the

intrapersonal and interpersonal processes that take place in a child.

The language domain refers to the process of acquiring language in a consistent order without the

need for explicit teaching from the environment.

The construction of thought processes, which include remembering, problem solving, and

decision-making, refers to the cognitive domain.

V. Stages in Child Development

Sages, along with age, are used as ranges to mark significant periods in a human

development timeline. In each stage, growth and development occur in the four domains

mentioned above. The stages are as follows:

A. Infancy (birth to 2 years)

B. Early childhood (3 to 8 years), middle childhood (9 to 11 years), and

C. Adolescence (12 to 18 years)

LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS

1. Learners who are gifted and talented

Definition

 Learners who are gifted and talented are students with higher abilities than average and are

often referred to as gifted students.

 Students whose talents, abilities, and potentials are developmentally advanced.

Gardner’s Intelligences

Identification

 Locate the student’s domain of giftedness.

  Describe the student’s level of giftedness.

 Describe the students' fields of talent.

Learning Characteristics

 Exceptional intellectual curiosity.

 Read actively.

 High degree of task commitment.

 Keen power of observation.

 Highly verbal.

 Gets bored easily.

 Can retain and recall information.

 Excited about learning new concepts.

 Independence in learning.

 Good comprehension of complex contexts.

 String, well-developed imagination.

 Looks for new ways to do things.

 Often gives uncommon responses to common questions.

General Education Adaptation

 Learners who are gifted and talented usually get bored.

 Teachers may give enrichment exercises that will allow learners to study the same topics at

a more advanced level.

 A leadership role can be given to gifted students.

 Extensive reading.

2. Learners with difficulty seeing

Definition

 Students who have issues with sight that interfere with academics.

Identification

 Learners with difficulty seeing often have physical signs, such as crossed eyes, squinting,

and eyes that turn outward. They like to sit near the instructional materials.

Difficulty seeing can be seen in their handwriting or poor performance in sports activities.

Learning Characteristics

 Learners with difficulty seeing have restricted ways of learning incidentally from their

surroundings since most of them learn through visual clues. Because of this, other senses,

like hearing, are used to acquire knowledge.

General Educational Adaptation

 Portions of textbooks and other printed materials may be recorded so that visually impaired

students can listen instead of focusing on the visual presentation.

 Students with difficulty seeing should be seated near the board.

 A classmate can be assigned to students with difficulty seeing as needed.

 Teachers should monitor the students closely to know who needs extra time to complete

tasks.

3. Learners with difficulty hearing

Definition

 Refers to students with an issue regarding hearing that interferes with academics. Deafness

is considered when hearing loss is above 90 decimals.

Identification
  Observe a student and see if he or she does the following items.

 Speaks loudly.

 Positioning the ear toward the direction of the one speaking.

 Asking for information to be repeated again and again.

 Delayed development of speech.

 Watching the face of the speaker intently.

 Not responding when called.

 Has difficulty following directions.

 Does not mind loud noises.

 Learning close to the source of sounds.

Learning Characteristics

 Most learners with difficulty hearing use various methods of communication. The most

common use of hearing aids is combined with lip-reading. They are referred to as “oral”

since they can communicate through speech as opposed to sign language.

General Educational Adaptation

 Use captions.

 Make use of the available technology.

 Use visual stimuli.

 Consider classroom arrangements.

 Keep unnecessary noise to a minimum.

4. Learning with Difficulty Communicating

Definition

 Have little or no speech or speech that is difficult to understand.

 Have difficulty saying or generating words or sentences.

  Have difficulty understanding what other people are saying.

 Have difficulty knowing how to interact socially with other people.

Identification

 Struggling with stories.

 Struggles with Understanding Spoken Language.

 Poor behavior.

 Poor speech and sound production.

 Lack of attention and listening.

 Lack of social skills.

Learning Characteristics

These may include difficulty following directions:

 Attending to a conversation

 Pronouncing words

 Perceiving what was said

 Expressing oneself, or

 Being understood because of a stutter or a hoarse voice.

General Education Adaptation

 Maintain a contract with the student.

 Allow the child to sit near the teacher and the blackboard.

 Get the child’s attention before giving directions.

 Call the child’s name or use a pre-arranged signal.

 Use pictures, charts, and other visual aids when explaining content to supplement auditory

information.

 Speak slowly and clearly without exaggerating your speech.

  Encourage and assist in the facilitation of activities and discussions.

5. Learning with Difficulty Moving or Walking

Definition

 A physical disability is a condition that substantially limits one or more of the most basic

physical activities in life. Examples are walking, climbing stairs, reaching, carrying, or lifting.

These limitations hinder the person from performing tasks or daily living. Disorders such as

dyspraxia, stereotypic movement disorder, tics, and cerebral palsy.

Identification

 Students with difficulty moving or walking may have problems related to movement,

posture, sitting, standing, grasping or manipulating objects, communication, eating,

perception, relaxing movements, and/or automatic motricity, sphincter, and intestinal

muscle.

Learning Characteristics

 A student with difficulty moving or walking may have difficulty managing the distance

between different learning activities, such as carrying materials, taking notes, and doing

practical activities, and may take longer to ask or answer questions.

General Educational Adaptation

 Classroom accommodations for children (DCD/SMD)

Types of Accommodation

Response.

 Assign a peer or adult as the scribe for notetaking.

 Use different sizes of paper and graph paper to align numbers.

  Try different writing tools and pencil grips.

 Use a word processor or computer.

 Allow for oral recitation to supplement written tests.

Setting

 Allow preferential seating near the teacher.

 Adjust the chair and/or desk height to maximize posture and stability.

 Place a non-skid mat on the chair.

 Provide opportunities for movement breaks.

Schedule

 Allow for extra time to complete tests and write assignments.

 Provide extra time to change for physical education class.

Others

 Photocopy notes and homework.

 Allow me to take photos, notes, and homework.

 Give advantage to organizers before the lesson writing task.

 Send lecture handouts online.

6. Learners with difficulty remembering and focusing

Definition

 Students with learning disabilities (LD) and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

are characterized by having difficulties with memory and attention functions.

Identification
  Learner disabilities (LD) refer to disorders that affect a person’s ability to take in,

understand, remember, or express information. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD) is defined as a persistent pattern of problematic symptoms that include difficulty

staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and/or hyperactivity.

Learning Characteristics

 Distractibility.

 No persistence with a task.

 Inconsistency in performance from one day to another.

 Excessive daydreaming during school-related tasks.

 Excess motor activity (something is always moving).

 Insatiability (never being satisfied with an activity).

 Poor response to discipline.

 Moodiness.

 Sleep disturbances (very restless sleeper).

General Educational Adaptation

 Provide a predictable schedule as much as possible.

 Provide preparation for changes in routines and give notice that they are about to be asked

to make a transition in activities.

 Give advance planning and an introduction to unfamiliar tasks and situations.

7. Learners with Difficulty with Self-Care

Definition

 Self-care often refers to a person’s capacity to perform daily living activities or specific body

care, such as washing oneself, brushing teeth, combing, trimming nails, toileting, dressing,

eating, drinking, and looking after one’s health. Identification: Self-care difficulties can
 present as laziness or reliance on others to perform self-care skills for them. There is no

interest in developing independence. Limited interest in roll play (often self-care-related

activities).

Learning Characteristics

 They required more help than others of their age to get dressed or undressed.

 They need adults to open the food packed in their lunch box.

 Refuse to eat certain foods.

 Be unable to coordinate movements to brush teeth. require extensive help to fall asleep.

 Choose to toilet only at home where there is adult support.

 Be late to develop independent daytime toileting.

 They show limited motivation for independence in self-care, so they wait for adults to do it

for them instead.

General Educational Adaptation

 Task analysis is a behavioral approach that breaks down complex behaviors into step-by-

step procedures, thereby providing modeling and ample practice for students with

difficulties.

 Define the target behavior or task.

 Identify the required skills needed to successfully complete the task.

 Identify the necessary materials to perform the task.

 List the needed steps in sequential order to complete the task.

 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IMPAIRMENTS AND DISORDERS

I. What to know about communication disorders?

Communication disorders affect a person’s ability to detect, receive, process, and

comprehend the concepts or symbols necessary for communication. It can affect hearing,

language, and speech. Causes include neurological damage due to a stroke. The

communication process enables a person to pass on information, express their ideas and

feelings, and understand other people’s thoughts, emotions, and ideas. The American

Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) estimates that about 5–10% of Americans

have communication disorders. This article discusses communication disorders in more

detail, including their types, causes, symptoms, and treatment.

II. What are communication disorders?

Communication disorders are a group of conditions involving problems with

receiving, processing, sending, and comprehending various forms of information and

communication, including:

 Concepts

 Verbal
  Nonverbal

 Graphic language

 Speech

They can result from any condition that affects hearing, speech, and language to the extent

that it can disrupt a person’s ability to communicate properly. A communication disorder can

manifest early in a child’s development, or a medical condition can cause it to develop at an older

age. It can be a stand-alone condition or co-occur with other communication and developmental

disorders. The severity of communication disorders can range from mild to profound.

Types of Communication Disorders

 The ASHA classifies communication disorders into four groups:

 Speech Disorder.

 Speech disorders affect a person’s ability to articulate speech sounds.

These conditions can affect fluency, meaning the rate, rhythm, and flow of speech, or voice,

meaning the pitch, volume, or length of speech.

Language Disorder

Language disorders impair a person’s ability to comprehend or use spoken, written, or other

symbol systems. They may involve problems with:

 Phonology: This term refers to the sounds that make up language systems and the rules

governing sound combinations.

 Morphology: Morphology describes the structure and construction of words.

 Syntax: People who have difficulties with syntax may make errors relating to the

relationship, order, and combination of words in sentences.

 Language content: This term refers to the meaning of words and sentences, or semantics.

 Language function: Language function means using and understanding language based on

the interactional context and beyond its literal meaning.

  Hearing disorder: Hearing disorders result from an impaired sensitivity of the auditory

system.

They involve difficulties detecting, recognizing, discriminating, comprehending, and perceiving

auditory information. A person with a hearing disorder may be deaf or have partial hearing loss.

Central auditory processing disorder (CAPD): According to the ASHA, CAPD results from

problems in processing auditory information in the brain area responsible for interpreting auditory

signals. These problems are not due to an intellectual impairment or hearing sensitivity problems

in the ear.

Other classifications

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) classifies

communication disorders into four categories:

 Language disorder: A person has difficulty acquiring and using spoken, written, or sign

language or other language modalities.

 Speech sound disorder: These disorders involve difficulty producing speech sounds, which

can make sounds challenging to understand or prevent effective communication.

 Child-onset fluency disorder (stuttering): This term refers to speech flow and fluency

problems that are not appropriate for a child’s age. Social (pragmatic) communication

disorder: A person has trouble understanding and using verbal and nonverbal

communication for social purposes.

III. What causes communication disorders?

Most communication disorders have an unknown cause, but they may be

developmental or acquired. Possible causes include:

 Exposure to toxins and substances while in the womb

 Traumatic brain injuries or tumors in the brain area responsible for communication

 Stroke and other neurological disorders

  Structural impairments, such as a cleft lip or cleft palate

 Vocal cord injury due to misuse and abuse;

 Viral disease.

These disorders may also be genetic. A 2015 case study found that some genetic variants may

make specific individuals susceptible to communication disorders. The type of communication

disorder will determine the possible symptoms: speech disorder symptoms

The symptoms of speech disorders include:

 Repeating words, vowels, or sounds

 Difficulty making sounds, even when the person knows what they want to say.\

 Elongating or stretching words

 Adding, omitting, or substituting words or sounds

 Jerky head movements or excessive blinking while talking

Frequently pausing while talking Language Disorder Symptoms

The symptoms of language disorders include:

 Overusing fillers such as “um” and “uh” because of the inability to recall words, knowing and

using fewer words than their peers

 Trouble understanding concepts and ideas

 Difficulty learning new words

 Problems using words and forming sentences to explain or describe something • Saying

words in the wrong order

 Difficulty understanding instructions and answering questions

Hearing Disorder Symptoms

The symptoms of hearing disorders include:

  Being behind their peers in terms of oral communication

 Asking others to repeat what they said in a slower, clearer manner

 Talking louder than is typical

 Muffled speech and other sounds

 Withdrawal from social settings and conversations

 Difficulty understanding words, especially in noisy environments

CAPD disorder symptoms

The symptoms of CAPD include:

 Difficulty localizing sounds

 Difficulty understanding words that people say too fast or against a noisy background

 Problems understanding and following rapid speech

 Difficulty learning songs

 Lack of musical and singing skills

 Difficulty learning a new language

 Problems paying attention

 Getting easily distracted

IV. Who is at risk of communication disorders?

Communication disorders are common in children. Nearly 1 in 12 children trusted in

the U.S. has some form of communication disorder. The rates are highest among children

aged 3–6 years and drop at an older age. According to a 2016 study by Trusted Source,

there is strong evidence that language disorders run in families. Family history is, therefore,

a significant risk factor for developing communication disorders. The same study suggests

that males are more likely to develop language disorders than females. Certain conditions

put a person at risk of communication disorders such as aphasia, apraxia, and dysarthria.

The National Aphasia Association notes that 25–40% of people who have experienced a
 stroke will need a doctor to perform a physical exam to diagnose communication disorders.

This exam will involve examining a person’s mouth, ears, and nose. If the doctor suspects a

communication disorder, they will work with other specialists, such as neurologists and

speech-language pathologists, to make an accurate diagnosis. Common tests include:

 Hearing tests

 Neurological exams

 Nasopharyngolaryngoscopy, which uses a flexible fiber-optic tube with a camera to view the

voice box

 Psychometric testing to assess thinking performance and logical reasoning abilities

 Psychological testing to assess cognitive abilities

 Psychiatric evaluation, if emotional and behavioral problems are also present; • speech and

language assessments

 Imaging tests, such as an MRI or CT scan.

Doctors may also compare a child’s language with age, communication milestones, and

checklists.

Treatment

The treatment for communication disorders involves working with a speech-language

pathologist. The specific approach will depend on the type and severity of the communication

disorder. Therapy might take place in a one-on-one or group setting. A speech-language

pathologist will work with the rehabilitation team, including a physical and occupational therapist,

to address other relevant skills before or in parallel with speech therapy sessions. Underlying

causes, such as infections, will also require treatment. Treatment often involves the entire family,

other healthcare professionals, and teachers for a highly individualized approach. Depending on

the goal, a speech-language pathologist may remediate and promote skills or teach alternative

forms of communication, such as augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) or sign

language.
Summary

Communication disorders are a variety of disorders that affect any aspect of

communication. They can occur at any age, and there are various possible causes, although the

cause is often unknown. Communication disorders commonly appear in children in the early phase

of their development, whereas adults often acquire communication disorders from other

conditions, such as stroke or brain injury. The best way to treat communication disorders in

children is through early intervention. Early detection and treatment can help address the child’s

developmental needs and prevent further delays.

LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING

PART I | DEFINITION OF TERMS

Learning

According to Richard E. Meyer

 The relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience.

 Three Components:

o Duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term.

o Locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the

behavior of the learner.

 o The cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather than

fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic intervention.

According to Susan Ambrose, et. al.

 A process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the

potential of improved performance and future learning.

Disorder

 According to World Health Organization

 Characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotional

regulation, or behavior.

 Usually associated with distress or impairment in important areas of functioning.

 Having learning disorders does not mean a learner is intelligently incompetent; it only

implies that their brains are wired differently, in which they require a special approach in

order to absorb information effectively.

Cognitive

 Relating to the mental process involved in knowing, learning, and understanding things

Memory Retention

 Refers to the ability to remember information over a period of time. In short, it is the

process of retrieving information after it has been encoded and stored.

Attention Span

 The amount of concentrated time one can spent on a task without becoming distracted.

 The length of time for which a person is able to concentrate mentally on a particular activity.

PART II | SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 Learning disorders can be detected by early signs and symptoms which may reveal

themselves even at an early age. Paying attention to normal developmental milestones for

toddlers and preschoolers is very important. Early detection of developmental differences may be

an early signal of a learning disability and problems that are spotted early can be easier to correct.

Preschool Age

 Problems pronouncing words.

 Trouble finding the right word.

 Difficulty rhyming.

 Trouble learning the alphabet, numbers, colors, shapes, or days of the week.

 Difficulty following directions or learning routines.

 Difficulty controlling crayons, pencils, and scissors, or coloring within the lines.

 Trouble with buttons, zippers, snaps, or learning to tie shoes.

Ages 5-9

 Trouble learning the connection between letters and sounds.

 Unable to blend sounds to make words.

 Confuses basic words when reading.

 Slow to learn new skills.

 Consistently misspells words and makes frequent errors.

 Trouble learning basic math concepts.

 Difficulty telling time and remembering sequences.

Ages 10-13

 Difficulty with reading comprehension or math skills.

 Trouble with open-ended test questions and word problems.

 Dislikes reading and writing; avoids reading aloud.

 Poor handwriting.
  Poor organizational skills (bedroom, homework, and desk are messy and disorganized).

 Trouble following classroom discussions and expressing thoughts aloud.

 Spells the same word differently in a single document.

A developmental lag might not be considered a symptom of a learning disability until the

learner gets old, but if recognized early, intervention would also be early.

PART III | KINDS OF MEMORY

1. Long term Memory

o Vast store of knowledge and a record of prior events, and it exists according to all

theoretical views.

2. Short term Memory

o Faculties of the human mind that can hold a limited amount of information in a very

accessible state temporarily.

3. Working Memory

o It is used to plan and carry out behavior.

o It correlates with intellectual aptitudes (and especially fluid intelligence).

PART III | LEARNING DISORDERS

Disorders Definition Effects in Effects in

Remembering Focusing

Dyslexia Learning difficulty that Difficulty People with

primarily affects the remembering dyslexia often find

skills involved in directions and it hard to

accurate and fluent word learning sequences concentrate. This

reading and spelling. that they hear. This may be because,

hampers their after a few

 Mainly affects SHORT ability to sequence minutes of

TERM MEMORY and plan sequential struggling to read

steps as they may or write, they feel

not be able to hold mentally

auditory exhausted

information long

enough to process

it.

Dyspraxia Also known as Difficulty in Difficulty

developmental remembering or concentrating –

coordination disorder doing the sequence they may have a

(DCD), is a chronic of movements poor attention

condition that begins in needed to span and find it

childhood that causes complete simple difficult to focus on

difficulties with motor skilled or complex 1 thing for more

(movement) skills and tasks, even though than a few

coordination. they are physically minutes

able to do the

Mainly affects tasks.

WORKING MEMORY

Dysgraphia Disorder of writing ability Difficulty in Difficulty in

at any stage, including remembering or concentrating-

problems with letter applying proper They have very

formation/legibility, letter grammar, spelling, short attention

spacing, spelling, fine pronunciation, and span. They have

motor coordination, rate all the other problems

of writing, grammar, and aspects or writing sustaining

attention on one
 composition. and language. task and forget

things quickly.

Mainly affects

WORKING MEMORY

ADHD Attention-deficit/ ADHD limits long People with ADHD

hyperactivity disorder term memory may appear to be

(ADHD) is marked by an abilities more often. inattentive at times

ongoing pattern of and forget

inattention and/or important things

hyperactivity-impulsivity more often. This is

that interferes with defined as

functioning or inattentive type

development. ADHD.

Mainly affects LONG They may also

TERM WORKING interrupt or

MEMORY express disruptive

behavior more

often. This is

known as

hyperactive-

impulsive type

ADHD.
 LEARNERS IN OTHER MARGINALIZED GROUP

Introduction

In this section you will understand what marginalization means, specifically in the area of

education. You will learn about the different groups that are marginalization in society and in

education. You will explore a process that be used to identify issues of marginalization in class or

school.

I. Marginalization in Education

Marginalization in education occurs when certain groups of students are systematically

excluded from full participation in the educational process. This exclusion can result from various

factors, including socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, disability, gender, and geographic location.

Marginalization leads to unequal access to educational resources, opportunities, and outcomes,

perpetuating cycles of disadvantage and limiting the potential of affected students. Here are some

key aspects of marginalization in education:

Key Aspects:
  Socioeconomic Status: Low-income students often lack resources and opportunities,

leading to lower academic achievement and higher dropout rates.

 Race and Ethnicity: Racial and ethnic minorities may face discrimination and cultural

insensitivity, resulting in achievement gaps and reduced access to advanced programs.

 Disability: Students with disabilities encounter physical and educational barriers, leading to

exclusion and lower academic performance.

 Gender: Gender biases and stereotypes limit opportunities for girls, particularly in certain

cultures, affecting enrollment and career prospects.

 Geographic Location: Rural students often lack access to quality education and

resources, resulting in lower educational attainment.

Addressing Marginalization:

 Inclusive Policies: Promoting equity and inclusion within the educational system.

 Resource Allocation: Ensuring marginalized schools and students receive adequate

funding.

 Teacher Training: Equipping educators to support diverse learners.

 Community Engagement: Involving communities to create a supportive environment.

 Support Services: Providing counseling, tutoring, and language assistance.

By addressing these factors, we can work towards an educational system where all students

have equal opportunities to succeed.

II. Marginalization and Inclusion

Marginalization in education happens when certain student groups are systematically

excluded from full participation in the educational process due to factors like socioeconomic

status, race and ethnicity, disability, gender, and geographic location. This leads to unequal access
to resources and opportunities, resulting in lower academic achievement, higher dropout rates,

and limited career prospects for these students.

A. Inclusion in Education

Inclusion in education aims to ensure all students, regardless of background or abilities, have

equal access to learning opportunities. Strategies for promoting inclusion include:

 Inclusive Policies: Enforcing laws and policies that promote equity and prevent

discrimination.

 Resource Allocation: Providing adequate funding and resources to marginalized schools

and students.

 Teacher Training: Equipping educators with skills to support diverse learners.

 Community Engagement: Involving families and communities in the educational process.

 Support Services: Offering counseling, tutoring, and additional help to students in need.

Goal of Inclusive Education

The goal is to create an environment where all students feel valued and can achieve their

full potential. By addressing the causes of marginalization and implementing inclusive practices,

we can build a fair and supportive educational system for everyone, enriching the learning

experience and fostering a more inclusive society.

FOUR STEPS CYCLICAL PROSSES

1. Opening Doors

Definition: This step involves creating opportunities for diverse perspectives and voices to be

heard and included.

  Actions: Actively seek out and invite participation from marginalized or underrepresented

groups. Remove barriers to participation by ensuring accessibility and providing necessary

resources.

 Goals: Ensure that everyone has a chance to contribute, fostering a more inclusive and

diverse environment.

2. Looking Closely

Definition: This step focuses on careful and detailed observation, examination, and consideration

of all contributions and data.

 Actions: Pay attention to the details, question assumptions, and gather comprehensive

information. Use critical thinking to analyze the contributions and evidence presented.

 Goals: Gain a thorough understanding of the situation or problem by considering all

available information and perspectives.

3. Making Sense of the Evidence

Definition: This step involves interpreting and synthesizing the information gathered to draw

meaningful conclusions and insights.

 Actions: Analyze the evidence using logical reasoning and contextual understanding.

Consider multiple viewpoints and the implications of the evidence.

 Goals: Develop a coherent and informed understanding that can guide decision-making

and actions.

4. Dealing with Marginalization

Definition: This step addresses the recognition and remediation of exclusionary practices and

biases.

 Actions: Identify instances of marginalization and take steps to address and rectify them.

Implement policies and practices that promote equity and inclusion.

  Goals: Ensure fair treatment, representation, and opportunities for all individuals,

particularly those who have been marginalized.

Applying the Cyclical Process

The process is cyclical, meaning that after addressing marginalization, the cycle begins

again with opening doors for new opportunities and perspectives. Each cycle builds upon the

previous one, creating a continuous improvement loop for inclusivity, critical thinking, and problem-

solving.

Example Application:

1. Opening Doors: A company initiates a diversity and inclusion program to bring in voices

from different backgrounds.

2. Looking Closely: The company conducts surveys and focus groups to gather detailed

feedback from employees about their experiences and challenges.

3. Making Sense of the Evidence: The feedback is analyzed to identify common themes and

areas needing improvement.

4. Dealing with Marginalization: The company implements changes such as bias training,

equitable hiring practices, and support networks for underrepresented groups.

By repeating this cycle, the company continually evolves and improves its inclusivity and

overall workplace culture.

III. DIFFERENT LEARNERS IN MARGINALIZED GROUP

B. INDINGENOUOS PEOPLE

Indigenous peoples encompass diverse cultural groups with unique languages, traditions,

and knowledge systems. Understanding the educational needs of Indigenous communities

requires recognizing their cultural diversity and historical experiences of colonization and

marginalization. Indigenous learners may include traditional knowledge holders, community-

oriented individuals, modern academic learners, vocational and skills-based learners, and cultural

revivalists, each with distinct characteristics and learning styles. Challenges faced by Indigenous

learners include systemic barriers, cultural mismatches in education, language barriers, and socio-

economic obstacles. Supporting Indigenous learners involves implementing culturally responsive

pedagogy, engaging communities in educational development, providing holistic support services,

advocating for inclusive policies, and offering mentorship programs. By addressing these

challenges and supporting Indigenous education, educators and policymakers can promote equity,

preserve cultural heritage, and empower Indigenous communities.

NORMAN KING – is the first Aeta to graduate from the Univercity of of the Ohilippines with a

degre in BA Behavioreal Science.The story of Norman King is a story of a mother providing

protection for her child in the world outside. The life lessons that his mom imparted protected him

from resembles those around , enabling him to become the first Aeta to graduate from the

Philippines premier state university.

C. ABUSED CHILDREN

Child abuse within Indigenous communities is a complex and sensitive issue influenced by

historical, cultural, and socio-economic factors. Here are some important considerations:

1. Historical Trauma:
  Indigenous communities have endured centuries of colonization, forced assimilation,

and cultural genocide, resulting in intergenerational trauma and systemic

inequalities.

 Historical trauma can contribute to cycles of violence, substance abuse, and family

dysfunction within Indigenous communities, increasing the risk of child abuse.

2. Cultural Factors:

 Indigenous cultures often prioritize communal values, respect for elders, and

interconnectedness among family members.

 However, cultural practices and beliefs may also intersect with patterns of abuse,

such as corporal punishment or silence surrounding sensitive topics like sexual

abuse.

3. Socio-Economic Challenges:

 Many Indigenous communities face socio-economic disparities, including poverty,

unemployment, inadequate housing, and limited access to healthcare and education.

 These challenges can exacerbate family stressors and increase the risk of child

neglect, exploitation, and abuse.

4. Lack of Resources:

 Indigenous communities may have limited access to child welfare services, mental

health support, and culturally appropriate intervention programs.

 Remote geographic locations, cultural barriers, and distrust of external authorities

can further impede access to resources and support for victims and families.

5. Intersectional Identities:
  Indigenous children may face intersecting forms of discrimination and

marginalization based on factors such as gender, sexual orientation, disability, or

membership in specific Indigenous groups.

 These intersecting identities can increase vulnerability to abuse and complicate

efforts to address systemic issues.

6. Cultural Resilience and Healing:

 Despite the challenges, many Indigenous communities demonstrate resilience and

strength in preserving cultural traditions, revitalizing Indigenous languages, and

promoting healing from historical trauma.

 Culturally sensitive approaches to prevention and intervention, grounded in

Indigenous knowledge and community collaboration, can empower families and

promote healing.

Addressing child abuse in Indigenous communities requires culturally competent

approaches that recognize and respect Indigenous rights, values, and self-determination.

Collaboration between Indigenous leaders, government agencies, non-profit organizations, and

service providers is essential to develop holistic solutions that promote child safety, strengthen

families, and support community healing.

D. REFUGEES/ DISPLASED CHILDREN

There is a large and disparate range of reading available on the subject of refugee and

displaced children. This is reflective of the subject matter. The category “refugee and displaced

children” includes children who have been granted refugee status by receiving societies, those

applying for refugee status (asylum-seeking children), and those who are reasonably considered

to be forced migrants but who have not yet made an application for asylum. It also includes

children who have not crossed any international borders but have had to leave their homes owing

to external dangers. This is the category of children who are internally displaced, often referred to

as the population of IDPs, or internally displaced persons. The category may be broadened still
further by incorporating children who may be stateless or undocumented and have not entered the

asylum process. Refugee and displaced children are present throughout the world, and there is

literature that is specific to particular countries and regions. This includes a mass of “gray

literature,” including reports commissioned by governments and regional authorities that are aimed

at developing a profile of refugee and displaced children including the actual and potential needs

and demands they may have regarding government services. A further salient issue is the

interdisciplinary nature of the subject area. Important contributions have come from a range of

fields, such as social policy, sociology, anthropology, history, psychology, psychiatry, and social

work.

General Overviews

In terms of a general overview of the contemporary phenomenon of migration,Castles and

Miller 2009 is an excellent introduction. It offers important theoretical perspectives that are vital to

the study of refugee and displaced children, as well as a detailed multidisciplinary and global

overview of the subject. Rutter 2006 offers a distinctive contribution to understanding policy and

practice directed to refugee children in one of the major receiving countries for refugees. Watters

2008 offers theoretical and methodological orientations as well as an examination of programs for

refugee children in a range of receiving countries.

E. CHILDREN IN CONFLICT ZONES

Children living in conflict zones endure profound hardships and face numerous risks due to the

violence, instability, and disruption caused by armed conflict. Here's a summary of their

experiences:

1. Direct Violence and Trauma:

 Children in conflict zones are exposed to direct violence, including bombings,

shootings, and attacks on their communities, homes, and schools.

  Witnessing or experiencing violence can cause severe trauma, leading to long-term

psychological and emotional distress.

2. Displacement and Refugeehood:

 Many children are forced to flee their homes due to conflict, becoming internally

displaced within their own countries or seeking refuge in neighboring countries.

 Displacement disrupts their lives, separates them from family members, and

exposes them to further risks, including exploitation, trafficking, and abuse.

3. Loss of Education and Future Opportunities:

 Conflict disrupts children's access to education, as schools are damaged, destroyed,

or repurposed for military use.

 Lack of education deprives children of essential learning opportunities and hinders

their future prospects for employment, economic stability, and social advancement.

4. Malnutrition and Health Risks:

 Conflict exacerbates food insecurity, malnutrition, and lack of access to clean water

and healthcare services.

 Children in conflict zones are at heightened risk of malnutrition, disease outbreaks,

and preventable illnesses due to limited access to medical care and humanitarian

aid.

5. Recruitment and Use in Armed Conflict:

 Armed groups may recruit children as soldiers, spies, messengers, or laborers,

exposing them to violence and exploitation.

  Child soldiers are deprived of their childhood, education, and mental well-being, and

are at risk of physical injury, trauma, and long-term psychological harm.

6. Protection and Humanitarian Assistance:

 Protecting children in conflict zones requires concerted efforts to uphold their rights,

ensure their safety, and provide humanitarian assistance.

 Humanitarian organizations play a crucial role in delivering aid, including food,

shelter, healthcare, psychosocial support, and education services to children and

families affected by conflict.

7. Long-Term Impact and Recovery:

 Even after conflict ends, children continue to grapple with the long-term

consequences of their experiences, including trauma, displacement, and loss.

 Rebuilding communities and supporting the recovery and reintegration of children

affected by conflict requires sustained investment in education, healthcare,

psychosocial support, and peacebuilding initiatives.

In summary, children in conflict zones endure profound suffering and face multiple risks to

their safety, well-being, and prospects. Protecting their rights, providing humanitarian assistance,

and investing in their recovery and long-term development are essential priorities for addressing

the impact of armed conflict on children.

In conclusion

learners from marginalized groups face unique challenges in the educational system, often

stemming from factors such as disability, immigration status, LGBTQ+ identity, socioeconomic

status, language barriers, cultural differences, homelessness, and gender stereotypes. Addressing

these challenges requires a holistic approach that prioritizes inclusivity, equity, and cultural
responsiveness in education. By understanding and accommodating the diverse needs of

marginalized learners, educators and policymakers can create more supportive and inclusive

learning environments where all students can thrive and reach their full potential.

Here are some questions about learners in other marginalized groups:

1. How do students with disabilities learn differently from other students?

2. What helps immigrant and refugee children learn best in school?

3. Do LGBTQ+ students feel safe and included in schools?

4. Why do some kids have a harder time in school because they don't have a lot of money?

5. How can teachers help students who are learning English?

6. Do kids of different skin colors feel the same in school?

7. Why is it important for kids to have computers or tablets for school?

8. Should schools teach more about Indigenous peoples and their ways?

9. What makes it hard for some kids to go to school if they don't have a home?

10. Are boys and girls treating the same way in school?