Prof M.

Rashid Khan
 MDCAT Physics Unit: MEASUREMENT
This unit deals with physical quantities and their measuring techniques and skills
Physical Quantity
Quantitative measurement of observables such as path, matter, duration e.t.c are, called physical quantities. e.g
length, mass, time, velocity, force, density, temperature, electric current and numerous others.
Physical Quantity = Number x Unit = magnitude
length = 3m
mass = 100 kg

Prof M. Rashid Khan

time = 5s
A physical quantity has magnitude/numeric value.
Physical quantities are often divided into TWO categories.

Base Quantities Derived Quantities

These are minimum number of physical quantities, These are physical quantities which are expressed in
selected by arbitrary choice of the scientists and in terms of base quantities. Derived quantities are
terms of which other physical quantities has to be infinitely large in number. Few of them are:
expressed. Typical examples of base quantities are Area= length x width = L x L
length, mass, time etc. Volume= length x breadth x height = L x L x L
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐋
Velocity= =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭
𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐋
Acceleration= = 𝟐
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐞 𝐭
𝐋
Force = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝐦 ×
𝐭𝟐
 Unit
The foundation of physics rest upon physical quantities in terms of which laws of physics are expressed.
Therefore, these quantities have to be measured accurately. The measurement of a base quantity involves two
steps:
1. Choice of a standard
2. Establishment of a procedure for comparing the quantity to be measured with the standard
An ideal standard has two principal characteristics:
a. It is accessible

Prof M. Rashid Khan

b. It is invariable
These two requirements are often incompatible and compromise has to be made between them.
An arbitrary but suitable standard adopted for measurement of a physical quantity, is called unit.
As choice of standard and selection of base quantities are arbitrary, many system of units were established in
the past.
MKS - system CGS - system FPS - system
Quantity unit symbol Quantity unit symbol Quantity unit symbol
length meter m length centimeter cm length feet ft
mass kilogram kg mass gram g mass pound Lb
time second sec time second sec time second sec
But now a days, by an international agreement, a comprehensive and more precise system of measurement
was established in 1960, known as system international (SI).
 System International (S.I) Units
The system international (SI) is built from THREE kinds of units.
Base units Supplementary Units Derived Units
These are unit of base quantities which Certain units of SI which has not yet These are units of derived quantities
are are selected by arbitrary but classified as either base units or derived which can be expressed in terms of
suitable choice of scientists. units are, called supplementary units. For base units and supplementary units.
SI system consist of seven base units. the time being, these SI units are Derived units are infinitely large in
SI Base Units assigned to two purely geometrical nature. The name and symbol of few
quantities; plane angle and solid angle. derived units are listed in the table
Quantity Unit Symbol The name and symbols of supplementary below.
length meter m units are listed in the table below. SI Derived Units
mass kilogram kg SI Supplementary Units Quantity Unit Symbol
time second s Quantity Unit Symbol A=LxB mxm m2
temperat- kelvin K Plane angle radian rad V=Lxbxh mxmxm m3
ure m
Solid angle sterdian Sr ρ=
kg kg m−3
V m3
electric ampere A
m
current v=
d m s −1
t s
luminous candela Cd v m
a = m s −2
intensity t s2
F = ma kg m s −2 = N
amount of mole mol
newton
substance =∆P/∆t
 𝐅 N 𝐦−𝟏 𝐬−𝟏 N 𝐦−𝟏 𝐬−𝟏
Quantity Unit Symbol 𝛈=
𝟔𝛑𝐫𝐯
Plane Angle P= mv Kg m s −1=Ns Ns As=
q=Ixt C
Angle subtended by an arc of I= Fxt Ns Ns coulomb
circle at center of the circle. It W=Fxd Nm=joule J 𝚫𝛉 rad s-1 rad s-1
𝛚=
is OO ∆𝐭
s τ = r⊥ × F Nm Nm
θ= = ∆L/∆t
r
For s = 1m and r = 1m, θ = 1 rad f=
1
T
s −1 =hertz Hz Unit less Quantities
Solid Angle ΔN/N s −1 s −1 Refractive Index= 𝐧 =
𝐜
λ= 𝐯
Angle subtended by a surface at an arbitrary Δt
strain= 𝛆 =
𝚫𝐋
point O. P=
F N m−2=pascal Pa 𝐋
𝐅𝐯𝐚𝐜
A Dielectric constant= 𝛜𝐫 =
𝐅𝐦𝐞𝐝
For a surface of surface area σ=
F N m−2=pascal Pa 𝐈𝐂
A oriented at position r w.r.t θ ොr A Current gain= 𝛃 =
O. 𝐈𝐁
point O, solid angle is T=
F N m−1 N m−1
L
F −1 −1 1 N = kg m 𝒔−𝟐
A(ොn. ොr) A nො ොr cosθ Nm Nm
Φ= = Φ K= = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐠 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐦 𝐬−𝟐
r2 r2 x
= 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐠 cm 𝐬 −𝟐
Acosθ Q J K −1 J K −1
= ∆S =
∆T
= 𝟏𝟎𝟓 dyn
r2
For Sphere ොr ⊥ nො ⟹ θ = 0o R J K −1 J K −1 1 J = Nm
K=
A O NA = 𝟏𝟎𝟓 dyn× 𝟏𝟎𝟐 cm
Φ= 2
r Q J K −1 J K −1 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 dyn cm
For A = r 2 Φ = 1 sr H= = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 earg
∆T
PREFIXES
Multiples and sub multiples of 10 to be fixed before a unit are, called prefixes. Some
prefixes are listed in table below
1 micron = 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 m
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1 angstrom = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 m
1 fermi = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 m
10 1 deca da 10 – 18 atto a 1 L.Y = 𝟗. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 m

10 2 hecto k 10 – 15 femto f

Prof M. Rashid Khan

10 3 kilo k 10 – 12 pico p

10 6 mega M 10 – 9 nano n

10 9 giga G 10 – 6 micro μ

10 12 tera T 10 – 3 milli m

10 15 Peta P 10 – 2 centi c

10 18 exa E 10 – 1 deci d
 ERROR: UNCERTAINITY:

Marked value ……= 2.5 kg

observed value ….=2.3 Kg
Difference ………...= 0.2 kg…..(error)
Length of pencil = 7 cm

A difference between marked value and observed A doubt about the measurement of a physical
value of a physical quantity, is called error. quantity, is called uncertainty.

Causes Of Errors
The error may occur due to:
Causes Of Uncertainty:
The uncertainty may occur due to:
1. negligence or inexperience of a person 1. inadequacy or limitation of an instrument
2. faulty apparatus 2. natural variations of the object being measured
3. Inappropriate method or technique 3. natural imperfections of a person senses.
UNCERTAINTY IS ALSO DESCRIBED AS AN ERROR IN
CAUSES OF ERRORS ARE BECAUSE OF WE
MEASUREMENT
HUMAN PERSONS
 Prof M. Rashid Khan
TYPES OF ERRORS
There are two major types of errors.
Random Error Systematic Error
More accurate time period of a simple pendulum= 1.65 s actual length of a cylinder = 5.60 cm
Time period of the pendulum in three observations are: Zero error of Vernier calipers = - 0.01 cm
1.68 s, 1.64 s, 1.61 s observed length of cylinder = 5.59 cm
Deviation of marked value and observed values are: Deviation of actual length and observed length= 0.01 cm
0.03 s, 0.01 s, 0.04 s (systematic error)
( random errors) In each observation Vernier calipers will give error of 0.01 cm
in length of given cylinder.
The error which occur randomly in repeated
measurements of a particular quantity, is called random The error which occur equally in repeated measurements of a
error. e.g error in time period of a simple pendulum when particular quantity, is called systematic error. e.g error in
it is measured repeatedly. Random error occur due to length between two points when it is measured repeatedly by
some unknown causes and cannot be excluded. However, vernier calipers having some zero error. Systematic error occur
it can be minimized by taking average of number of due to zero error of instruments, poor calibration of
repeated measurements of the quantity. instruments or incorrect markings etc. It can be removed by
Average observed time period= 𝟏.𝟔𝟏 𝐬+𝟏.𝟔𝟒 𝐬+𝟏.𝟔𝟖 𝐬
= 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 𝐬
applying zero correction factor and by comparing instrument
𝟑
with standard instrument which is known to be more
closer to actual value 1.65 s
accurate.
Corrected length of given cylinder = observed length + Z.C =
5.59 cm + 0.01 cm = 5.60 cm
 Precision and Accuracy

Prof M. Rashid Khan

Length = 7 cm ………………. Has maximum Uncertainty= L.C = 1 cm PRECISION

Length = 6.7 cm …………….Has maximum uncertainty = L.C = 0.1 cm PRECISION

• PRECISION
Absolute uncertainty in a measurement of a quantity, is called its precision. Precision of a quantity can be
determined by instrument being used to measure the quantity. It is equal to the least count of the measuring
instrument.
precision = L.C
L.C of meter rod = 0.1 cm = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 cm
L.C of verneir callipers = 0.01 cm = 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 cm
L.C of screw guage = 0.001 cm = 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 cm

Prof M. Rashid Khan

L.C of interferometer = 100 nm = 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 cm = 𝟏𝟎− 𝟒 mm

An instrument which has lesser L.C is more precise

• ACCURACY
Fractional or percentage uncertainty in a measurement of a quantity, is called its accuracy.
𝐋.𝐂
accuracy = fractional uncertainty =
𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲

e.g: Length of 25.5 cm measured by meter rod having smallest division one millimeter has:
precision = L.C= 1 mm = 0.1 cm
𝐋.𝐂 𝟎.𝟏 𝐜𝐦
and accuracy = fractional uncertainty = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒
𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝟐𝟓.𝟓 𝐜𝐦
𝐋.𝐂 𝟎.𝟏 𝐜𝐦
or accuracy = percentage uncertainty = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟒 %
𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝟐𝟓.𝟓 𝐜𝐦
An other length of 0.45 cm measured by vernier calipers having least count 0.01 cm has:
precision = L.C = 0.01 cm
𝐋.𝐂 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝐜𝐦
and accuracy = fractional uncertainty = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝟎.𝟒𝟓 𝐜𝐦
𝐋.𝐂 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝐜𝐦
Or accuracy = percentage uncertainty= 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % = 𝟐. 𝟎 %
𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝟎.𝟒𝟓 𝐜𝐦

Prof M. Rashid Khan

More absolute uncertainty Less precise measurement
Less accuracy More accurate measurement
25.5 cm is less precise(L.C=0.1cm) than 0.45 cm (L.C=0.01 cm)
25.5 cm is more accurate(accuracy=0.4 %) than 0.45 cm(accuracy=2 %)

A precise measurement is the one which has less absolute

uncertainty and an accurate measurement is the one which has
less fractional or percentage uncertainty.
 Prof M. Rashid Khan
ℓ1 =4.6 𝑐𝑚 ℓ2 =6.7 𝑐𝑚 with L.C= △ ℓ = 0.1 𝑐𝑚

ℓ1 +ℓ2 = 4.6 𝑐𝑚 + 6.7 𝑐𝑚 = 11.3 𝑐𝑚

ℓ1 × ℓ2 =4.6 𝑐𝑚 × 6.7 𝑐𝑚 = 30.82 𝑐𝑚2
ℓ12 =(4.6 𝑐𝑚)2 = 21.16 𝑐𝑚2
 ASSESSMENT OF ERRORS IN FINAL RESULTS
We want to learn rules which determine errors in:
1. addition/subtraction of quantities
2. multiplication/division of quantities
3. raise to power of a quantity
4. average of quantities
5. time period of vibrating body
1.Addition or Subtraction: 2.Multipilcation or division:
Total uncertainty in addition/subtraction of quantities is qual to sum Total percentage uncertainty in multiplication/division of
of absolute uncertainties of the quantities to be added/subtracted. quantities is equal to sum of percentage uncertainties of the
e.g : Length 𝓵𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝐜𝐦 measured with L.C = ∆𝓵𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐜𝐦 quantities to be multiplied/divided.
and length 𝓵𝟐 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟖 𝐜𝐦 measured with L.C = ∆𝓵𝟐= 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐜𝐦 e.g Consider a voltmeter reads potential difference V = 5.2 ± 0.1 V
has: across the ends of a conductor and ammeter record current
observed subtraction = 𝓵𝟐 − 𝓵𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟖 𝐜𝐦 − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝐜𝐦 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑 𝐜𝐦 I= 0.084 ± 0.05 A through it then:
total uncertainty in 𝓵𝟐 − 𝓵𝟏 = ±( ∆𝓵𝟏 + ∆𝓵𝟐 )= ± (0.1 cm + 0.1 cm) = ± 0.2 cm 𝐕 𝟓.𝟐 𝐕
observed resistance of conductor R = 𝐈 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟒 𝐀 = 𝟔. 𝟐 𝛀
Thus,

Prof M. Rashid Khan

𝐕
percentage uncertainty in R= 𝐈 = ±(percentage error in V + percentage error in I)
corrected 𝓵𝟐 − 𝓵𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑 𝐜𝐦 ± 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐜𝐦 𝐕 ∆𝐕 ∆𝐈
percentage uncertainty in R= = ±( × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % + × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %)
𝐈 𝐕 𝐈
𝐕 𝟎.𝟏 𝐕 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝐀
percentage uncertainty in R= 𝐈 = ±(𝟓.𝟐 𝐕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % + 𝟎.𝟖𝟒 𝐀 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %)
𝐕
percentage uncertainty in R= 𝐈 = ±(𝟐 % + 𝟔 %)
𝐕
percentage uncertainty in R= 𝐈 =
±8%
For 100 Ω resistance, error = ± 8 Ω
8
“ 1Ω “ , “ = ± 100

8
“ 6.2 Ω ” , “ = ± 100 × 6.2 Ω = ± 0.5 Ω
Now,
Corrected Resistance R = 6.2 Ω ± 0.5 Ω
 3.Power Factor 4.Average
Total percentage uncertainty in a quantity raised to power n, is equal Total uncertainty in average of quantities is equal to mean deviation
to n times the percentage uncertainty of the quantity. of the quantities.
e.g : Consider radius of a sphere r = 2.25 cm measured by a vernier e.g: Consider six readings 1.20 mm, 1.22 mm, 1.23 mm, 1.19 mm,
calipers with L.C = 0.01 cm then: 1.22 mm, 1.21 mm of diameter of a wire then:
𝟒 𝟒 𝟏.𝟐𝟎+𝟏.𝟐𝟐+𝟏.𝟐𝟑+𝟏.𝟏𝟗+𝟏.𝟐𝟐+𝟏.𝟐𝟏
observed volume of sphere = V = 𝛑 𝐫 𝟑 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝐜𝐦 𝟑 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟕 𝐜𝐦𝟑 Observed average diameter = 𝐦𝐦 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏 𝐦𝐦
𝟑 𝟑 𝟔
𝟒 The deviation of readings of diameters from average value are respectively:
Total percentage uncertainty in (V= 𝟑 𝛑 𝐫 𝟑 ) = ± percentage uncertainty in 𝐫 𝟑
𝟒 0.01 mm, 0.01 mm, 0.02 mm, 0.02 mm, 0 mm
Total percentage uncertainty in (V= 𝛑 𝐫 𝟑 ) = ± (3 × percentage uncertainty in r) Thus,
𝟑
𝟒 𝚫𝐫 𝟎.𝟎𝟏+𝟎.𝟎𝟏+𝟎.𝟎𝟐+𝟎.𝟎𝟐+𝟎.𝟎𝟏+𝟎
Total percentage uncertainty in (V= 𝟑 𝛑 𝐫 𝟑 ) = ± (3 × 𝐫
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %) Mean deviation = 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝟔
𝟒 𝟎.𝟎𝟏 𝐜𝐦
Total percentage uncertainty in (V= 𝟑 𝛑 𝐫 𝟑 ) = ± (3 × 𝟐.𝟐𝟓 𝐜𝐦 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %) Now,
𝟒 Corrected average diameter = 1.21 mm ± 0.01 mm
Total percentage uncertainty in (V= 𝛑 𝐫 𝟑 ) = ± (3 × 𝟎. 𝟒 %)
𝟑
𝟒
Total percentage uncertainty in (V=
𝟑
𝛑 𝐫 𝟑 ) = ± 1.2 % 5.Time Period of Vibrating Body
Thus, Uncertainty in time period of a vibrating body can be determined by
For 100 cm3 volume, error = ± 1.2 cm3 dividing least count of the timing device by number of vibrations.
𝟏.𝟐
“ 1 cm3 “ , “ =± e.g: Consider time of 30 vibrations of a simple pendulum recorded by
𝟏𝟎𝟎
“ 47.7 cm3 “ , “ =±
𝟏.𝟐
× 𝟒𝟕. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎𝟑 = ± 0.6 cm3 Stopwatch accurate upto one tenth of a second is 54.6 s then:
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐭 𝟓𝟒.𝟔 𝐬
Now, observed time period T= = =1.82 s
𝐍 𝟑𝟎
Corrected volume = 47.7 cm3 ± 0.6 cm3 𝚫𝐭 𝟎.𝟏 𝐬
uncertainty in T = ± 𝐍 = ± 𝟑𝟎 = ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝐬
Now,
corrected time period = 1.82 s ± 0.003 s

𝐔𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐲 𝐢𝐧 𝐓
Prof M. Rashid Khan %age uncertainty in T = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝐓