FABRICATION OF A FROTH FLOTATION UNIT FOR FINE AND

ULTRAFINE COAL BENEFICIATION OF TALCHER AREA

A Major project presentation submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of degree
Of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Chemical Engineering
Submitted by

Badal Kumar Sahoo (2001105009)

Subhranshu Sunil Barik (2001105616)
Bikash Kumar Sethi (2001105012)
Ashish Kumar Jaipuria (2001105006)
Kalyan Kumar Mohanty (2001105019)

Under the guidance of

Dr. (Mrs.) Brahmotri Sahoo
Assistant Professor
Chemical Engineering Department

Department of Chemical Engineering

Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Sarang

Odisha – 759146, India

Department of Chemical Engineering

Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Sarang
Odisha- 759146, India
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Badal Kumar Sahoo (Regd. No. 2001105009) Subhranshu Sunil
Barik (Regd. No. 2001105616) Bikash Kumar Sethi (Regd. No. 2001105012) Ashish
Kumar Jaipuria (Regd. No. 2001105006) Kalyan Kumar Mohanty (Regd. No. 2001105019)
have submitted the MAJOR PROJECT report entitled “FABRICATION OF A FROTH
FLOTATION UNIT FOR FINE AND ULTRAFINE COAL BENEFICIATION OF
TALCHER AREA” under the guidance of Dr. (Mrs.) Brahmotri Sahoo, Assistant
Professor, Chemical Engineering Department in partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the award of the Degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in Chemical Engineering at
Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Sarang, Odisha.

Head of the Department Dr. (Mrs.) Brahmotri Sahoo

Dept. of Chemical Engineering Assistant Professor
Chemical engineering department

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the project work undertaken
during B. Tech 4 th year. We owe a special debt of gratitude to our project guides Dr. (Mrs.)
Brahmotri Sahoo (Assistant Professor Department of Chemical Engineering) for the constant
support and guidance throughout the course of our work. It is only their cognizant efforts that
our endeavors have seen the light of the day.

Finally, we extend our sincere thanks to all those who have helped us during this project work
and have been involved directly or indirectly in the work.

Badal Kumar Sahoo

Subhranshu Sunil Barik

Bikash Kumar Sethi

Kalyan Kumar Mohanty

Ashish Kumar Jaipuria

List of Figures

Figure No. Caption Page No.

 List of Tables

Table No. Topic Page No.

 Abstract

Coal, as a vital energy resource, demands a thorough understanding of its geological

evolution, characteristics, and refinement techniques. This comprehensive report delves into
the intricacies of coal beneficiation, particularly focusing on froth flotation as a method for
separating valuable coal particles from impurities. The report begins with an exploration of
coal's geological evolution, emphasizing its categorization based on varying ranks determined
by carbon content and energy characteristics. Understanding these classifications lays the
groundwork for subsequent discussions on beneficiation techniques. A significant portion of
the report is dedicated to a meticulous literature review on froth flotation, dissecting its
relevance and effectiveness in the context of coal separation. The technique's utilization in
mineral processing, leveraging differences in surface properties, forms the basis of its
application in coal beneficiation. To facilitate experimentation and analysis, a froth flotation
unit was constructed, incorporating essential components necessary for the separation of
ultrafine clean coal particles. Various parameters, including particle size, agitation speed,
frother dosage, and pH adjustment of the coal slurry, were meticulously controlled and varied
to assess their impacts on the flotation process. Experimental results revealed the intricate
interplay between different parameters and their effects on coal particle size and
concentration. By systematically altering these variables, a comprehensive understanding of
the flotation process emerged, elucidating its potential for coal beneficiation. Furthermore,
characterization of the recovered clean coal was conducted using a muffle furnace, allowing
for the assessment of its properties post-flotation. Through this analysis, the efficacy of froth
flotation in producing high-quality coal was evaluated, providing insights into optimization
strategies for future industrial applications. The report underscores the importance of
parameter optimization in maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of the flotation
process. By manipulating variables such as particle size, agitation speed, and frother dosage,
researchers can tailor flotation conditions to achieve desired outcomes, enhancing the quality
and yield of clean coal production. Overall, this study offers a holistic perspective on coal
beneficiation through froth flotation, providing a foundation for informed decision-making
and further research endeavors in the field. By elucidating the intricate mechanisms
underlying the flotation process and its relationship to coal properties, this report contributes
to the ongoing quest for sustainable energy solutions and resource optimization.
 CONTENTS

Title Page (I)

Certificate by the Supervisor (II)

Acknowledgement (III)
List of Figures (IV)

List of tables (V)

Abstract (VI)

Contents (VII)

Introduction 1
Chapter-1
(Introduction)
1. Introduction
An organic rock, in contrast to the majority of other rocks in the Earth's crust, such as clays
and sandstone, is coal; it is predominantly composed of carbon (C) but also contains
hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and nitrogen (N), in addition to certain inorganic
constituents (minerals) and water (H2O) (Chapter 7, Coal, Sustainable Energy Strategy;
1995). Globally, coal is the primary fossil energy source extensively utilized and is pivotal in
fostering industrial expansion. It is a crucial component in electricity generation and a
fundamental input in most iron and steel manufacturing and cement production facilities.
According to the World Coal Association's estimates, 70% of the world's steel production and
41% of the world's electricity generation rely on coal (Singh et al.; 2003 & BP (British
Petroleum) statistical review of world energy. London; June 2014).

Typically, coal in India is believed to originate and transform according to the Drift
(Allochthonous) theory. This hypothesis proposes that coal deposits result from the rapid
transport and deposition of plant material during flood events. However, this theory,
suggesting the movement of plant debris, has faced criticism for being challenging to
comprehend. According to this concept, soil debris is carried by water streams from one
location to another until it settles in environments such as swamps, lakes, and seas. During
this transportation, the plant material picks up impurities and inorganic constituents
(minerals) from various regions. Consequently, coal formation under the drift theory leads to
a high ash content, with Talcher coal, classified as sub-bituminous and bituminous, exhibiting
ash levels exceeding 50%.

Most coals, as extracted from the ground, contain a certain level of associated moisture.
Applying gentle heat to coal slightly above the boiling point of water leads to a weight loss in
the sample, defined as moisture. Subsequently, when a dried coal sample is heated without air
(preventing combustion), an additional weight loss is observed, with the material expelled
termed volatile matter. Following a volatile matter test, the remaining sample typically
appears as a black solid, retaining a coal-like appearance, indicating that some coal
substances did not vaporize. In the historical context of chemistry, substances resistant to
transitioning between physical states were termed 'fixed.' Thus, the material left after the
removal of volatile matter is referred to as fixed carbon. Ash, on the other hand, is the non-
combustible residue derived from the inorganic or mineral components of coal (Chapter 7,
Coal, Sustainable Energy Strategy; 1995).
Table 1: Phases of Coal Development and their properties (Meshram et al.; 2015).

Coalification stage Moisture Volatile Carbon Calorific Oxygen

(%) matter (%) content Value content
(%) (kcal/kg) (%)
Peat 75 69–63 <60 3500 >23
Lignite 35–55 63–53 65–70 4000– 4200 23
Sub-bituminous C 30–38 53–50 70–72 4200– 4600 20
Sub-bituminous B 25–30 50–46 72–74 4600– 5000 18
Sub-bituminous A 18–25 46–42 74–76 5000– 5500 16
High volatile 12–18 46–42 76–78 5500– 5900 12
bituminous C
High volatile 10–12 42–38 78–80 5900– 6300 10
bituminous B
High volatile 8–10 38–31 80–82 6300– 7000 8
bituminous A
Medium volatile 8–10 31–22 82–86 7000– 8000 4
bituminous
Low volatile 8–10 22–14 86–90 8000– 8600 3
bituminous
Semi-Anthracite 8–10 14–8 90 7800– 8000 3.5
Anthracite 7–9 8–3 92 7600– 7800 4.5
Meta-Anthracite 7–9 8–3 >92 7600 5

Coking coal, primarily used in steel production for making coke, is distinct from steam coal
in its properties crucial for metallurgical coke production. While both have low sulfur
content, coking coal has a narrower ash range and lower moisture content compared to steam
coal. Its plasticity when heated aids in coke formation, essential for reducing iron ore to
metallic iron in blast furnaces. Steam coal, being softer, is suitable for combustion. Some
high-rank steam coals can partially substitute coking coal (IHS; 2019). In India, non-coking
coal is marketed based on Gross Calorific Value (GCV) without considering penalties for ash
and moisture. Shifting to GCV-based pricing is seen as an improvement, but a new pricing
system aligned with global practices and Indian coal characteristics is needed (Baruya; 2020).
It should consider market dynamics, resource availability, coal quality, and sustainability
concerns. Implementing price reforms faces challenges and can lead to conflicts between
ministries (The Ministry of Finance, European Union).

Penalizing high ash content is crucial except for China, where coal with higher ash content is
burned for power generation. In India, high ash content leads to significant losses for power
plants. Setting up thermal power plants involves bureaucratic hurdles, and state governments
lack control over coal decisions. Variable coal nature necessitates ash penalties as similar ash
levels can have significantly different GCV. Moisture content penalties are also important due
to discrepancies between fixed and actual moisture content, affecting coal delivery. India's
complex coal supply chain involves multiple stakeholders with conflicting interests. A
holistic approach is needed to ensure sustainability, emphasizing environmental and social
considerations in coal pricing (Tiwari et al.; 2015).

In 2022, the coal markets underwent significant upheaval marked by disruptions in traditional
trade routes, a surge in prices, and an anticipated growth in demand exceeding 8 billion
tonnes for the first time. Previous projections suggested that global coal demand might peak
in 2022 or 2023 before stabilizing. Despite the ongoing global energy crisis, the outlook for
the year remains consistent, with various factors balancing each other out. The invasion of
Ukraine by Russia notably impacted coal trade dynamics, price levels, and supply and
demand patterns in 2022. Electricity generation, the largest consumer sector for coal, is
projected to grow slightly over 2% in 2022, while coal consumption in the industrial sector is
expected to decline by over 1% due to decreased iron and steel production amid economic
downturns. China and India, the leading global coal consumers, also hold the positions of the
largest coal producers and top two coal importers. Faced with escalating prices and supply
constraints, both countries increased their domestic coal production post the summer of 2021.
Chinese production achieved a new monthly peak in March 2022 and is projected to reach a
record annual high with an anticipated 8% growth for the entire year, aiding in reducing
reliance on imports and replenishing coal stocks. China achieved a historic milestone in
December 2022 by surpassing 400 million tonnes of coal production in a single month,
exceeding the annual production of all countries except Australia, Russia, Indonesia, India,
and the United States (International Energy Agency, Paris, France).
China experienced rapid growth at 11% in 2022, ahead of schedule in achieving its goals
outlined in the 14th Five-Year Plan. Coal production in the European Union expanded for the
second consecutive year, reaching 349 million tonnes, attributed to increased lignite
production to meet nearby power plant demands. Indonesia saw a 12% surge in coal
production to approximately 641 million tonnes. Adverse weather conditions and the
lingering effects of the COVID-19 pandemic impacted Australia's coal production, causing a
3% contraction to 451 million tonnes. In the United States, weak domestic demand limited
growth to slightly over 3%, resulting in a total production of 542 million tonnes. Colombia
experienced a modest increase of just over 2% in coal production, reaching 57 million tonnes,
despite facing challenges such as adverse weather and protests. South Africa's coal
production increased by only 0.5% due to disruptions in rail services and a decline in
domestic consumption. Meanwhile, Russia's coal production remained stable at 442 million
tonnes, experiencing a marginal decrease of 0.2% due to sanctions and transportation
bottlenecks (National Bureau of Statistics, China.).

Coal stands as India's primary and abundant fossil fuel, playing a crucial role in the nation's
economic development by efficiently utilizing its geographical resources. It serves as a
cornerstone for modern industrialization, catering to various industrial needs such as power
generation, cement and steel production, and the creation of specialized products like
activated carbon and carbon fiber. India possesses substantial proven coal reserves, ranking
fifth globally with 352.12 billion metric tons, primarily consisting of bituminous, sub-
bituminous, and lignite coals. The country's rich history of commercial coal mining dates
back almost 220 years, beginning in 1774 in the Raniganj Coalfield. India's coal production
has shown significant growth, reaching 893.08 million tonnes in the fiscal year 2022-23,
marking a 14.76% increase compared to the previous fiscal year. Despite this growth, certain
coal needs, particularly for coking coal, are met through imports. Coal imports for India
surged by 30% in the fiscal year 2022-23, reaching 162.46 million tonnes, with coking coal
imports experiencing a 5.44% rise. To reduce import reliance and achieve self-sufficiency in
coal production, the government implements measures such as regular assessments by the
Ministry of Coal to expedite coal block development. India also exports approximately 1-2
million metric tonnes of coal annually to neighboring countries like Bangladesh and Nepal
but does not export to Sri Lanka (Information Bureau Government of India Ministry of Coal,
India).
 Production of R aw C oal
1000.0 893.1 0.2
728.7 730.9 716.1 778.2
800.0 0.15
14.76%
609.2 639.2 657.9 675.4
Prodution (MT)

600.0 556.4 565.8 0.1

Grpwth%
7.67% 7.89% 8.67%
400.0 4.93% 0.05
1.68% 2.92% 2.66%
200.0 0.00% 0.30% 0
-2.02%
0.0 -0.05
2012- 2013- 2014- 2015- 2016- 2017- 2018- 2019- 2020- 2021- 2022-
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Year

Production (MT) Growth%

Fig 1: Production of Raw
Coal in India

Sector Wise Off-take of Raw Coal

in India During 2022-23
57.792
0.661 8.059 1.133 0.287 1.203 0.092 0.109
8.119
52.647
13.826

733.441

Power (Utility) Power (Captive) Steel Cement

Fertilizers Sponge Iron Other basic-Metal Chemical
Pulp & Paper Textiles & Rayons Bricks Others
Fig 2: Sector Wise Off-
take of Raw Coal in India
During 2022-23 Off-take
According to S&P Global Commodity
[MT] Insights, Indian coal with a calorific value in the range
of 2,950-3,850 kcal/kg GAR can substitute Indonesian coal in the Bangladesh market,
creating a sustainable export-oriented coal market for Indian producers. This coal is projected
to cost between Rupees 2,534-2,976 per metric ton on a CFR Bangladesh basis, significantly
lower than the average import price of 5,000 kcal/kg GAR coal by Bangladesh. Bangladesh's
annual thermal coal demand for power generation is expected to increase from 2.3 million
metric tonnes to 21 million-25 million metric tonnes by 2025, leading to increased imports. In
2022, Bangladesh imported 7.5 million metric tonnes of coal, with a significant portion
originating from Indonesia. India's coal logistics plan includes exporting around 4 million
metric tonnes of coal to Sri Lanka to fuel the Lakvijaya power project, aiming to replace
current volumes from South Africa (S&P Global Inc., an American publicly traded
corporation, New York, USA).

1.1. Coal Washeries

Despite widespread skepticism regarding the washability of Indian coals, Tata Steel took a
groundbreaking step by establishing the country's inaugural coal washery in 1951 at West
Bokaro, boasting an installed capacity of 150 tonnes per hour. This initiative aimed to meet
the quality standards required for steel production. The washery employed the Chance Cone
process, utilizing sand as dense media to separate coal of size -75+25mm. Following the
recommendations of the Coal Washeries Committee in 1954, numerous pit-head and central
washeries were established in India between 1958 and 1970. These coal washeries adopted
relatively straightforward washing schemes with a maximum of 2-3 stages, ensuring
simplicity in operation and maintenance. The initial challenge of washing Indian coals was
effectively addressed, leading to the establishment of a network of coal washeries. However,
the rapid depletion of mineable reserves of high-quality coal, shifts in mining patterns,
stringent environmental regulations, and the influx of imported coals have introduced new
challenges and prompted significant changes in the approach to coal cleaning in the Indian
coal industry. Consequently, issues related to plant performance, which could have been
overlooked in the past, have emerged as pivotal factors (Mohanta et al.; 2019).

The Jamadoba Coal Preparation Plant (JCPP) witnessed the installation of the cone separator,
utilizing sand as a dense media, marking the initial washing equipment for treating Jamadoba
and Bhowra Coal. In 1955, Lodna Coal Company established a straightforward Coal Washery
based on the Feldspar Jig. Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL), established in 1954 to expand the
steel industry in India, and the National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC), founded to
foster planned growth in the coal mining sector, played key roles in shaping the industry. To
meet the demand for coking coal for HSL Steel Plants, NCDC envisioned Central Coal
Washeries near existing Marshaling yards such as Kargali, Durgapur, Dugda, Bhojudih, and
Patherdih. Kargali Washery, commissioned in 1958 by NCDC, became the first public sector
washery in India. Subsequently, Durgapur, Dugda, Bhojudih, and Patherdih Coking Coal
Washeries were commissioned during the III and IV Five Year Plans. Following suit, the
Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) established the Chasnalla Washery in 1968. NCDC
further installed Kathara and Swang Washeries in 1969 and 1970. After the nationalization of
the coal industry in India, the ownership of NCDC Washeries transferred to Central
Coalfields Limited (CCL). A decade later, for administrative reasons, the ownership of SAIL
Washeries shifted to Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL). To address the increasing demand
for clean coal, Coal India commissioned an additional seven coking coal Washeries
(Sudamdih, Moonidih, Nandan, Barora, Mohuda, Kedla, and Madhuband) between 1980 and
2000 (Venugopal et al.; 2016).

Run-Off-Mine Coal

Crusher 75-0 mm

Crusher 13-0 mm or 6.0 mm

Screen and sieve bend

+ 0.5 mm - 0.5 mm
Coal Washing Process

Density Separation Methods Surface Separation Methods

Oil agglomeration
Float and sink Gravity Separation
Methods Methods
Froth Flotation

Clean Coal Rejected Fine and Clean Coal

Ultrafine Coal (-
0.5 mm)

Fig 3:
1.1.1. Density separation Method
Density separation is a technique employed across various industries such as mining,
recycling, and environmental cleanup to segregate materials based on their differing densities.
It capitalizes on the fact that heavier particles settle faster in a medium than lighter ones. This
method utilizes specialized equipment like centrifuges and flotation cells along with a dense
medium such as water or air to facilitate the separation process. By adjusting parameters like
medium density and force application, precise and efficient separation can be achieved. For
instance, in mining, dense medium separation (DMS) is utilized to extract valuable minerals
from ore streams by creating a fluidized bed where denser minerals sink while lighter gangue
particles float. Similarly, in recycling, density separation aids in separating plastics or metals
from mixed waste streams, for instance, through sink-float separation where materials with
densities higher than water sink while those with lower densities float. Overall, density
separation is a versatile method crucial for recovering valuable materials and reducing waste
in industrial processes.

1.1.2. Surface Separation Method

Surface separation techniques are methods employed to segregate substances by exploiting
variations in their surface properties. These methods rely on differences in surface tension,
hydrophobicity, or chemical interactions between substances and a separating medium. By
harnessing these variances, surface separation techniques efficiently separate mixtures into
their components. Examples include froth flotation, oil/water separation, adsorption,
chromatography, electrophoresis, membrane separation, surface-enhanced Raman
spectroscopy (SERS), surface tension gradient-based separation, and gas chromatography.
Each technique employs distinct principles to achieve selective separation and finds
widespread application in diverse industries for purification, analysis, and processing
purposes.

1.1.3. Importance of Washing

Over time, the Jharia Coal Field has witnessed the extraction of prime-coking coal reserves
primarily from the upper seams, leaving lower seams containing lower-grade coal for future
extraction. In contrast to metallurgical grade coal (ST-I & ST-II), the inferior grade coal
cannot be directly mixed with imported coal for coke production. The rising demand in the
expanding steel industry, coupled with the declining production of metallurgical grade coal,
has led to an escalating dependency on imports for the Indian Steel Industry to fulfill its need
for high-quality coking coal.

Although domestic production is sufficient to fulfill the coal demands of the Indian Steel
Industry, the import of coking coal has been consistently on the rise. The primary causes for
this significant gap between demand and supply are the subpar quality of Indian coking coal
and insufficient washing capacity. Imported coal currently meets around 79% of the total
national demand. Notably, approximately 95% of the total coal produced in India falls under
Washery Grade-III and IV. According to the Coal Statistic Report, only 24% of the total
coking coal produced in India has been utilized in the metallurgical sector, with the remaining
76% diverted to non-metallurgical sectors. The situation becomes even more concerning
when focusing on public sector companies, where a mere 14.4% of the total coking coal is
utilized in the metallurgical sector. This critical scenario not only results in the loss of
valuable coking coal reserves to non-metallurgical sectors but also imposes a significant cost
on Indian foreign currency reserves, amounting to approximately US $5.2 billion for the
import of coking coal (Venugopal et al.; 2016).

Coal particles of course size and medium size, exceeding +0.5 mm, can be effectively
cleaned through density separation techniques, employing float and sink methods or gravity
separation methods. The gravity separation process offers both wet and dry methods for this
purpose. Various technologies, such as Landry washers, jigs, Wilfley tables, rising current
classifiers, hydrocyclones, etc., operate based on the principle of density separation and are
utilized in coal washeries to obtain purified coal.

However, when dealing with fine and ultrafine coal particles smaller than -0.5 mm, the
conventional methods mentioned above are not suitable. Moreover, these fine coal particles
contain valuable carbon that can be utilized for energy production. To address this, alternative
coal beneficiation technologies employing surface separation methods are employed to
effectively clean fine and ultrafine coal.

1.2. Coal Beneficiation

Regrettably, aside from carbon and hydrogen, coal typically contains sulfur, nitrogen,
minerals, and chlorine in varying concentrations. Additionally, trace elements such as
mercury, lead, arsenic, cadmium, selenium, thorium, and uranium are present in minute
amounts, usually just a few parts per million. When coal undergoes combustion, these trace
elements can be released into the environment in various, potentially harmful forms.
Historically, coal burning has contributed to issues like acid rain, smog, forest degradation,
and the eutrophication of lakes. As these environmental impacts are no longer deemed
acceptable, there is a growing need for new methods to mitigate harmful emissions from
coal-utilizing plants. This collection of technologies is commonly referred to as clean coal
technology (CCT) and encompasses approaches aimed at either removing or reducing
emissions, along with methods to enhance power plant efficiency (Perry MB; Encyclopedia
of Energy). The latter, efficiency improvements, play a role in pollution reduction by
decreasing the amount of coal required to generate a specific amount of power, making this
technology highly beneficial.

1.2.1. Needs of Beneficiation Technology

Operational challenges in coal combustion primarily stem from the impurities and mineral
content within the coal, impacting ash characteristics and deposition behavior in boilers. The
presence of mineral matter poses significant concerns for facilities, as it can cause fouling
and corrosion in equipment and treatment units. High ash content results in increased bottom
ash and fly ash rejection, requiring additional efforts for collection, disposal, or utilization.
Furthermore, coal ash can obstruct catalyst pores used for gas cleaning. Inorganic matter in
coal exists in water-soluble salts, organically bound elements, and discrete mineral grains
(Gupta et al.; 2007), undergoing interaction during combustion in two steps: initial
evaporation from coal and subsequent contact with heat transfer surfaces or existing slag
layers. While ash analysis and fusion temperatures have traditionally addressed these issues,
CCSEM analysis provides a more accurate prediction of ash deposition. The depletion of
high-grade coals used in the past exacerbates operational challenges. Ignition problems and
unburnt carbon issues are linked to volatile matter content and coal rank, respectively, with
low volatile matter making ignition difficult and higher inertinite content leading to increased
unburnt carbon (Pudasainee et al.; 2020).

Every stage of coal extraction, transportation, storage, utilization, and post-utilization has
adverse effects on the environment. The multifaceted environmental issues associated with
coal combustion raise doubts about the sustainable use of coal. Burning coal gives rise to air
pollution, with significant emissions such as NOx, SOx, and acid gases. These pollutants,
originating from nitrogen in coal and high-temperature reactions, result in secondary
problems like acid rain, photochemical smog, and ground-level ozone. Notably, NO x
emissions also include N2O, a greenhouse gas contributing to global warming. Sulfur in coal
undergoes oxidation during combustion, converting into SO 2 and, under specific conditions
of excess oxygen and elevated temperatures, progressing to SO 3 (Pudasainee et al.; 2020).
SO2 contributes to acidification, and SO 3 leads to corrosion and poses health risks upon
release into the atmosphere.

In the process of burning coal, a considerable amount of inorganic matter forms ash,
comprising either bottom ash or fly ash, depending on the effectiveness of particulate control
devices. Fine particles, especially PM10 and PM2.5, have harmful effects on human health,
leading to increasingly stringent global regulations on particulate and trace element emissions
(Wang; 2020). Developed nations generally have satisfactory control measures, adhering to
local standards and employing advanced technology. However, environmental worries persist
in developing and transitional countries due to particulate emissions. Coal is rich in diverse
elements, and the concentration of trace elements, influenced by the coal quality and
geological factors, can vary significantly, even within the same deposit (Zhaoa et al.; 2019).
The emission of trace elements during coal combustion is influenced by their occurrence
modes, whether organic or inorganic, within the coal. Most trace elements are linked to the
mineral content of coal, with their characteristics changing based on mining, transportation,
handling, and storage processes before combustion. The type and quantity of trace element
emissions during combustion are contingent upon factors such as the form of the trace
element, coal concentration, combustion conditions, atmospheric conditions, halogen levels,
flue gas components, and the efficiency of control devices. For example, metals with higher
boiling points undergo condensation onto fine particles during combustion, allowing their
removal through control devices. On the other hand, metals with lower boiling points, like Hg
and Se, primarily exist in the gaseous phase, potentially passing through pollution control
devices and being released into the atmosphere, raising concerns for both the environment
and human health (Vejahati et al.; 2010).

Recognized for having the highest carbon content among fossil fuels, the combustion of coal
releases greenhouse gases, primarily CO2. Additionally, coal utilization, particularly in
mining and combustion processes, contributes to emissions of CH 4 and N2O, which are
particularly worrisome due to their elevated global warming potential (Beamisha &
Crosdaleb; 1998). The global atmospheric CO2 concentration stood at 414 ppm in 2019,
marking a 40% increase from the mid-1800s level of 280 ppm, with an average annual
growth rate of 2 ppm over the last decade. This upward trajectory raises significant concerns,
potentially leading to adverse impacts such as extreme weather events, shifts in rainfall
 patterns, disruptions to agroecosystems, threats to biodiversity, increased incidence of human
diseases, and a higher mortality rate (Solomon et al.; 2007).

Coal Beneficiation Methods

Bio Chemical
Physical Methods Physio-Chemical Methods
Beneficiation
Methods
Method
Gravity Separation Acid Leaching
Magnetic Separation Froth Flotation Alkali Leaching
Electrostatic Separation Oil Agglomeration Leaching with
Microwave Treatment alkali Followed
by acid

Fig 4: Classification of coal beneficiation method

Instruments commonly used for gravity separation:

 Spiral Concentrator: Utilizes the differences in density between minerals to separate them
by gravity.
 Jig Separator: Uses pulsating water flow to separate materials based on their density.
 Shaking Table: A table with riffles that vibrates, allowing denser materials to settle while
lighter materials are carried away by water.
 Hydrocyclone: Uses centrifugal force to separate particles based on their size and density.
 Falcon Concentrator: A type of centrifugal concentrator specifically designed for fine
particle recovery.
 Knelson Concentrator: Another type of centrifugal concentrator used for the recovery of
fine gold particles.

Instruments commonly used for magnetic separation:

 Drum Magnetic Separator: This type of separator consists of a rotating drum that contains
a magnetic field. As the material flows through the drum, magnetic particles are attracted
to the drum surface and separated from non-magnetic materials.
 Magnetic Pulley Separator: Magnetic pulley separators are used in conveyor systems to
remove ferrous contaminants from the material being conveyed. The magnetic pulley
rotates and attracts magnetic materials, pulling them out of the material stream.
 Overband Magnetic Separator: Overband magnetic separators are typically suspended
above a conveyor belt to remove ferrous materials as the belt carries them beneath the
magnet. They are commonly used in recycling facilities to separate metal from waste
materials.
 Magnetic Grate Separator: Magnetic grate separators are used to remove ferrous
contaminants from free-flowing materials such as powders, granules, and pellets. These
separators consist of magnetic tubes or grids arranged in a grid pattern through which the
material flows.
 Magnetic Roll Separator: Magnetic roll separators use a series of magnetic rolls to
separate magnetic particles from non-magnetic particles. They are often used in mineral
processing applications to concentrate magnetic minerals.

Instrument commonly used for Froth Flotation

 Mechanical Flotation Cell: Mechanical flotation cells, also known as agitated flotation
cells, consist of a mechanically agitated vessel where air and reagents are introduced into
the slurry to promote particle attachment to air bubbles. These cells typically have
impellers or rotors to agitate the slurry and disperse air bubbles throughout the pulp.
 Column Flotation Cell: Column flotation cells are tall, cylindrical vessels with a height-
to-diameter ratio typically greater than 5:1. In column flotation, air bubbles are generated
by sparging air through a porous bottom or a mechanical means such as a sparger. The
mineralized bubbles rise through the column, carrying the hydrophobic particles to the
froth layer for collection.
 Jameson Cell: The Jameson Cell is a variation of column flotation that uses a downcomer
to introduce the air into the slurry and a high-shear zone created by the jetting action of
the downcomer to promote bubble-particle attachment. It is known for its high throughput
and efficient froth washing.
 Flotation Tank: Flotation tanks, or flotation banks, consist of multiple interconnected
flotation cells arranged in series or parallel to increase the residence time of the slurry and
improve flotation efficiency. Flotation tanks are commonly used in large-scale flotation
circuits in mineral processing plants.
 Pneumatic Flotation Machine: Pneumatic flotation machines utilize air bubbles generated
by a compressor or blower to float hydrophobic particles to the froth layer. These
machines typically have a low power consumption and are suitable for fine particle
flotation.
 HydroFloat Separator: The HydroFloat Separator is a fluidized-bed flotation cell that uses
upward fluidization to float hydrophobic particles to the surface. It operates without the
use of mechanical agitation and is particularly effective for coarse particle flotation.

Instrument commonly used for Oil Agglomeration

 Agitation Tank or Mixer: Agitation tanks or mixers are used to mix the hydrophobic
particles with the oil phase in a slurry. These tanks provide controlled mixing and
dispersion of the oil and particles to ensure uniform coating and agglomeration.
 Flotation Cell: Flotation cells are often used in oil agglomeration processes to facilitate
the attachment of hydrophobic particles to the oil phase. The flotation cell generates air
bubbles that carry the oil-coated particles to the surface, forming a froth layer where the
agglomerates can be collected.
 Settling Tank or Clarifier: After flotation, the agglomerates formed by oil agglomeration
need to be separated from the aqueous phase. Settling tanks or clarifiers are used for this
purpose, allowing the agglomerates to settle to the bottom of the tank while the clarified
water is removed from the top.
 Filtration Equipment: Filtration equipment, such as filters or centrifuges, may be used to
separate the agglomerates from the aqueous phase if settling is not sufficient. Filtration
can be used to recover the agglomerates as a solid cake for further processing.
 Hydrocyclone: Hydrocyclones are sometimes used in oil agglomeration processes to
separate the agglomerates from the aqueous phase based on their density difference. The
hydrophobic agglomerates tend to have a lower density than water and can be separated
from the suspension using hydrocyclones.
 Heat Source: In some cases, heat may be applied to the slurry during the oil
agglomeration process to enhance the agglomeration efficiency. Heat can reduce the
viscosity of the oil phase, increase the rate of particle attachment, and improve the quality
of the agglomerates formed.

Instrument commonly used for Bio-Beneficiation

 Bioreactors: Bioreactors are vessels used to cultivate microorganisms or plants under
controlled conditions. In bio-beneficiation, bioreactors provide a suitable environment for
the growth and activity of biological agents involved in mineral processing. They can
range from small laboratory-scale reactors to large industrial-scale tanks.
 Fermenters: Fermenters are specialized bioreactors used for the cultivation of
microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi. They provide optimal conditions for microbial
growth and metabolism, including temperature, pH, oxygenation, and nutrient supply.
Fermenters are commonly used in bioleaching processes where microorganisms solubilize
metals from ores.
 Shaking Incubators: Shaking incubators are used in laboratory-scale bio-beneficiation
experiments to provide controlled conditions for the growth of microorganisms. These
incubators maintain precise temperature, humidity, and agitation levels to promote
microbial activity and biomass production.
 Biological Leaching Columns: Biological leaching columns are columns or reactors filled
with mineral ores or industrial wastes and inoculated with bioleaching microorganisms.
These columns facilitate the interaction between the microbial culture and the mineral
substrate, allowing for efficient metal extraction under controlled conditions.
 Analytical Instruments: Analytical instruments such as spectrophotometers, atomic
absorption spectrometers, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometers (ICP-MS)
are used to analyze the concentration of metals in bio-beneficiation processes. These
instruments provide accurate measurements of metal content in solution or solid samples,
allowing for process monitoring and optimization.
 Microscopy Equipment: Microscopy equipment, including optical microscopes and
electron microscopes, are used to study the interactions between microorganisms and
mineral surfaces in bio-beneficiation processes. Microscopic observations help
understand the mechanisms of mineral bioprocessing and optimize process conditions.
 Laboratory Supplies: Various laboratory supplies such as petri dishes, culture media,
pipettes, and sterilization equipment are essential for conducting bio-beneficiation
experiments in controlled laboratory settings.

Instrument commonly used for Acid Leaching

 Reaction Vessels or Tanks: Reaction vessels or tanks are used to contain the ore or
industrial material during the acid leaching process. These vessels are typically made of
 materials resistant to corrosion by acids, such as stainless steel, lined with acid-resistant
coatings, or constructed from plastics such as polyethylene or polypropylene.
 Agitation Equipment: Agitation equipment, such as mechanical stirrers, mixers, or
pneumatic agitators, are used to mix the acid solution with the solid material in the
reaction vessel. Proper agitation ensures uniform contact between the acid solution and
the material, facilitating efficient leaching.
 Filtration Equipment: Filtration equipment, including filter presses, vacuum filters, or
centrifuges, are used to separate the leach solution (pregnant leach solution or PLS) from
the solid residue (leach residue or leach cake) after the leaching process. Filtration is
essential for recovering the dissolved metals from the leach solution.
 pH and Temperature Monitoring Instruments: pH meters and temperature probes are used
to monitor and control the acidity and temperature of the leaching solution during the
process. Maintaining optimal pH and temperature conditions is critical for maximizing
metal dissolution rates and minimizing unwanted side reactions.
 Analytical Instruments: Analytical instruments, such as spectrophotometers, atomic
absorption spectrometers, or inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometers (ICP-MS),
are used to analyze the metal concentration in the leach solution. These instruments
provide accurate measurements of metal content, allowing for process monitoring and
optimization.
 Pumps and Piping Systems: Pumps and piping systems are used to circulate the leach
solution through the reaction vessel and filtration equipment. Proper design and operation
of pumping systems ensure efficient mixing, leaching, and solution recovery.
 Safety Equipment: Safety equipment, including protective clothing, gloves, goggles, and
ventilation systems, are essential for handling corrosive acids and ensuring operator
safety during acid leaching operations.

Instrument commonly used for Alkali Leaching

 Reaction Vessels or Tanks: Similar to acid leaching, reaction vessels or tanks are used to
contain the ore or industrial material during the alkali leaching process. These vessels are
typically made of materials resistant to corrosion by alkalis and are designed to withstand
the alkaline environment.
 Agitation Equipment: Agitation equipment, such as mechanical stirrers, mixers, or
pneumatic agitators, are used to mix the alkaline solution with the solid material in the
 reaction vessel. Proper agitation ensures uniform contact between the alkaline solution
and the material, facilitating efficient leaching.
 Filtration Equipment: Filtration equipment, including filter presses, vacuum filters, or
centrifuges, are used to separate the leach solution (pregnant leach solution or PLS) from
the solid residue (leach residue or leach cake) after the leaching process. Filtration is
essential for recovering the dissolved metals from the leach solution.
 pH and Temperature Monitoring Instruments: pH meters and temperature probes are used
to monitor and control the alkalinity and temperature of the leaching solution during the
process. Maintaining optimal pH and temperature conditions is critical for maximizing
metal dissolution rates and minimizing unwanted side reactions.
 Analytical Instruments: Analytical instruments, such as spectrophotometers, atomic
absorption spectrometers, or inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometers (ICP-MS),
are used to analyze the metal concentration in the leach solution. These instruments
provide accurate measurements of metal content, allowing for process monitoring and
optimization.
 Pumps and Piping Systems: Pumps and piping systems are used to circulate the leach
solution through the reaction vessel and filtration equipment. Proper design and operation
of pumping systems ensure efficient mixing, leaching, and solution recovery.
 Safety Equipment: As with acid leaching, safety equipment such as protective clothing,
gloves, goggles, and ventilation systems are essential for handling corrosive alkalis and
ensuring operator safety during alkali leaching operations.

Instrument commonly used for Leaching with alkali followed by acid

 Reaction Vessels or Tanks: These vessels are essential for containing the material during
both the alkali and acid leaching stages. They are typically made of materials resistant to
corrosion by both alkalis and acids and are designed to withstand the chemical
environment.
 Agitation Equipment: Mechanical stirrers, mixers, or pneumatic agitators are employed to
mix the leaching solutions with the solid material in the reaction vessel during both
stages. Proper agitation ensures thorough contact between the solutions and the material,
enhancing dissolution and extraction efficiency.
 pH and Temperature Monitoring Instruments: pH meters, temperature probes, and
conductivity meters are used to monitor and control the pH and temperature of the
 leaching solutions throughout the process. These parameters are critical for optimizing
metal dissolution rates and ensuring process efficiency.
 Filtration Equipment: Filtration equipment, such as filter presses, vacuum filters, or
centrifuges, is utilized to separate the leach solutions from the solid residues after both the
alkali and acid leaching stages. Efficient filtration enables the recovery of dissolved
metals and minerals from the leach solutions.
 Analytical Instruments: Spectrophotometers, atomic absorption spectrometers, or
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometers (ICP-MS) are employed to analyze the
metal concentrations in the leach solutions after both the alkali and acid leaching stages.
These instruments provide accurate measurements, facilitating process monitoring and
optimization.
 Pumps and Piping Systems: Pumps and piping systems are utilized to circulate the leach
solutions through the reaction vessels and filtration equipment during both stages. Well-
designed pumping systems ensure efficient mixing, leaching, and solution recovery.
 Safety Equipment: Protective gear such as gloves, goggles, and aprons, as well as
ventilation systems, are essential for operator safety when handling corrosive alkalis and
acids during the leaching process.
1.2.2. Coal Upgrading
To address the operational and environmental challenges associated with coal combustion,
various clean coal technologies have been employed. These techniques primarily focus on
coal dewatering, demineralization, and the elimination of detrimental elements like sulfur and
mercury. Essentially, coal cleaning is a procedure that involves the removal of impurities
from coal to enhance its overall quality. Coal beneficiation methods can be categorized into
physical, physio-chemical, bio-beneficiation, and chemical approaches. The following
sections will provide a brief discussion on coal beneficiation:

1.2.2.1. Dry beneficiation

Dry beneficiation offers two significant advantages: the conservation of water, a valuable
resource, and the absence of tailings ponds, consequently preventing the leaching of
trace/toxic elements into groundwater. In the dry beneficiation process for coal, the separation
of coal and mineral matter relies on variations in their physical properties such as density,
shape, size, luster, magnetic susceptibilities, frictional coefficient, and electrical conductivity
(Pudasainee et al.; 2020). This method not only yields a lump of clean coal but also reduces
the presence of some pollutants associated with minerals. However, it is unable to eliminate
inorganic matter in coal that originates as salts from the marine environment during
coalification (Pudasainee et al.; 2020). The effectiveness of an air-dense medium-fluidized
bed separator in eliminating trace elements like Hg, As, Se, Pb, Ag, Ba, Cu, Ni, Sb, Co, Mn,
and Be. Their findings indicated the association of Pb, Ag, Ba, Cu, Mn, and Be with ash-
forming minerals, while elements such as As, Se, and Sb displayed some organic bonding.
Dry beneficiation of coal proved effective in significantly reducing Hg, particularly when
associated with pyrites, achieving high rejection rates (Azimi et al.; 2013).

1.2.2.2. Wet beneficiation

Presently, wet coal beneficiation stands as the predominant approach for enhancing coal
quality. This method encompasses various wet beneficiation processes, such as heavy media
separation, cyclone (water only), froth flotation, and oil agglomeration. The selection of these
technologies is contingent upon factors such as the particle size of the feed and the desired
product quality. Generally, wet beneficiation yields superior product quality and recovery
compared to dry beneficiation methods. However, the wet process generates slimes and
acidic water, necessitating the use of tailings ponds. Dewatering the washed coal can
potentially lead to the release of pollutants, posing a risk of groundwater contamination if not
effectively managed. Wet cleaning is predominantly employed for metallurgical coals, while
there is a growing inclination toward utilizing dry beneficiation for thermal coals. This shift
is attributed to the specific advantages offered by dry methods, such as water conservation
and avoidance of issues related to tailings ponds and potential groundwater pollution
(Pudasainee et al.; 2020).
Chapter-2
(Literature Review)
2. Literature Review

Much research has examined different features of froth flotation using various coal samples
and reagent combinations. Froth flotation is a frequently used process for coal beneficiation,
aiming to extract valuable minerals from gangue components. Numerous research works
highlight the significance of particle size in coal flotation, carrying out tests for certain size
fractions <0.6µm and between (0.6 to 0.1)µm. This emphasizes the necessity of
individualized strategies based on the properties of coal. To make coal particles hydrophobic
and facilitate their attachment to air bubbles during the froth flotation stage, collectors are a
crucial component of the coal beneficiation process. The selectivity of its hydrophobicity
allows the valuable coal to be isolated from other impurities and gangue minerals. Coal
flotation research has involved the use of a variety of collector types; the collectors'
effectiveness depends on the kind of coal, particle size, and impurity level. Petrol, kerosene,
industrial-grade diesel, Triton X-100, Iluppai oil, and sodium hexametaphosphate were
among the collectors used. Collectors impact product quality, as evidenced by several
research on diesel, NaOL, and Iluppai oil. For instance, it has been shown that iluppai oil may
increase the gross calorific value of feed coal while lowering its ash content. Hydrophobic
coal particles are carried to the top by frothers to be collected in a stable froth. Frothers are
primarily used to improve the air bubbles' formation and stability in the flotation cell, which
guarantees the successful separation of valuable coal from gangue minerals. In coal flotation,
frothers such as pine oil, Dowfroth 250, Aerofroth 65, and other alcohol-based compounds
are often utilized. A few research looked into how to increase coal floatability and recovery
efficiency by using enhancing agents such as oleic acid, butanol, dodecane, and ethanol.

To effectively separate valuable coal from gangue materials, depressants selectively reduce
the flotation of undesired minerals or components, which is a critical function they serve in
the froth flotation of coal. When it comes to problems like undesired mineral interactions
especially with minerals that might impede the flotation process depressants are used in coal
froth flotation. Some research used depressants to reduce undesirable mineral interactions,
such as sodium metaphosphate (SMP), sodium silicate, and ferrous sulfate. Particular
parameters, such as mixing time, conditioning time, skimming time, pH, solid percentage,
and impeller speed, were frequently used to optimize flotation conditions. Certain studies
have established recommended values for process variables, including air rate, wash water
rate, feed solids concentration, frother dosage, collector dosage, and depressant dosage. A
threshold degree of coal surface oxidation (13.20 at. %) was identified in the investigation on
oxidized coals from Bulli Mine, beyond which genuine flotation was not achievable.

In the flotation process conducted from the coal sample of South Bolanda mine, Talcher
Coalfield, Orissa, India, coal particles smaller than 1mm were subjected to treatment using
specific chemicals and operational parameters. Kerosene oil served as the primary collector,
while pine oil acted as the frother. Sodium hexametaphosphate was utilized both as a silica
depressant and a dispersant. Additionally, ethanol and butanol were employed as reagents to
augment the floatability of the coal. Under optimized conditions within the flotation column,
with a flotation zone height of 1.5 m and a cleaning zone height of 1.0 m, along with specific
dosages of chemicals, including 2 ml/kg of kerosene oil, 0.3 ml/kg of pine oil, and 1.5 ml/kg
of black oil, aeration at a rate of 6–7 l/min, wash water at a rate of 2–2.5 l/min, solid
concentration at approximately 10%, and a feed rate of 4 l/min, a recovery rate exceeding
90% was achieved (Jena et al.; 2008). In the beneficiation process of coal particles, smaller
than 600 µm sourced from petroleum coke, filter powder, or fly ash from a lime calcination
plant tailing, a Jameson flotation cell measuring 100 mm in diameter and 750 mm in height
was utilized. Diesel oil was employed as the collector, while pine oil served as the frother.
Under these operational conditions and with the specified chemicals, a recovery rate of
92.1% was achieved (Ucurum; 2009). In the beneficiation process of coal particles, smaller
than 300 µm sourced from bituminous coal slime in Zonguldak, Turkey, a common circuit
system incorporating both a 540 mm diameter by 950 mm high Jameson cell and a 70 mm
diameter by 1500 mm high column flotation unit was utilized. Various collectors were
employed, including kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil (No. 4), and lead-free gasoline. Frothers
such as MIBC, DF-250, pine oil, and 2-ethylhexanol were also utilized. Under these specified
operational conditions, a recovery rate of 73.60% was achieved (Hacifazlioglu & Toroglu;
2011). Coal particles smaller than 0.15 mm sourced from HwaSun Coal Mine in South Korea
underwent beneficiation using specific chemicals and operational parameters. Kerosene
served as the typical coal collector, while MIBC and pine oil acted as frothers. Sodium
metaphosphate (SMP) and sodium silicate were employed as depressants. The process
operated with an air rate of 1 cm/s, a wash water rate of 0.3 cm/s, and a feed solids
concentration of 7% by mass. Additionally, dosages of 0.15 ml/L of MIBC as frother, 0.2 kg/t
of collector, and 3 kg/t of SMP as depressant were applied. Under these conditions, a
recovery rate of 85% was achieved (Han et al.; 2014). Coal particles smaller than 0.50mm
sourced from North Karanpura in Jharkhand, India, underwent beneficiation using diesel as
the collector and MIBC as the frother. The optimal process parameters included a collector
dosage of 2.87 kg/t of diesel and a frother dosage of 0.65 kg/t of MIBC. Flotation column
operating parameters, such as froth depth (600 mm), superficial feed velocity (0.57 cm/s), air
velocity (0.78 cm/s), and feed pulp consistency of 9% solids by weight, were also considered.
Under these conditions, a recovery rate of 72.18% was achieved (Vasumathi et al. 2016).
Coal particles smaller than 0.2 mm sourced from Bulli Mine, Australia, were subjected to
beneficiation using industrial-grade diesel as the collector and industrial-grade MIBC as the
frother. The slurry water pH was adjusted to 8. Under these conditions, a recovery rate of
91.92% was achieved (Chang et al. 2017). Coal particles smaller than 0.6 mm from the
Anjir–Tangeh (Zirab) coal washing plant underwent beneficiation using gasoline and
kerosene as collectors, and MIBC and pine oil as frothers. The optimal conditions included a
collector dosage of 3000 g/t for kerosene and a frother dosage of 40 g/t for pine oil. The solid
percentage in the slurry was maintained at 10%, with an impeller speed of 1000 rpm. Under
these parameters, a recovery rate of 90% was achieved (Asghari et al.; 2018). Coal particles
smaller than 0.50mm from the coal washery at Moonidih, BCCL, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India,
underwent beneficiation using iluppai oil (95% pure oil) and light diesel oil as collectors,
with MIBC serving as the frother. The pH of the slurry was adjusted to 7.0, and the impeller
speed of the machine was maintained at a constant 1200 rpm throughout the tests. Under
these conditions, a recovery rate of 81.3% was achieved with diesel oil, while a recovery rate
of 85.6% was attained with iluppai oil (Bharatha; et al. 2021).

Coal fines below 500 µm sourced from Sudamdih, India, underwent beneficiation using light
diesel oil as the collector and a frother comprising pine oil and MIBC in a 50:50 ratio. The
collector dosage was set at 2 g/kg, while the frother dosage was maintained at 0.3 ml/l. Under
these conditions, a recovery rate of 71.9% was achieved. The ash content in the feed was
measured at 31%, which decreased to 15.6% in the product after beneficiation (Reddy et al.;
1988). Coking coal particles smaller than 500µm sourced from Sudamdih, Patherdih,
Kathara, and Moonidih in India were subjected to beneficiation using light diesel oil as the
collector and a frother consisting of pine oil and MIBC in a 50:50 ratio. The beneficiation
process was carried out in a flotation column measuring 100 mm in diameter and 2300 mm in
height. Recovery rates of 50.5%, 74.1%, 74.0%, and 78.8% were achieved for the respective
locations. The ash content in the feed varied, with percentages of 40.3%, 25.1%, 29.5%, and
22.2%, respectively, while in the product, ash content ranged from 12.6% to 16.3% across the
different locations ( Sastri et al.; 1988). Coal particles smaller than 0.53mm sourced from
Zonguldak colliery underwent beneficiation using Triton X-100 as a dispersant and surface
modifier, along with commonly used reagents MIBC and SDS in the froth flotation process.
Under these conditions, a recovery rate of 84% was achieved. The ash content in the feed was
recorded at 23.95%, which decreased to 12.12% in the product after beneficiation (Ozmak &
Aktas; 2006). Coal particles smaller than 150 µm sourced from seam coal in Zonguldak,
Turkey, were subjected to beneficiation using a Cyclojet flotation cell with multi-stages. In
the rougher flotation stage, a recovery rate of 47.60% was achieved, followed by 65.53% in
Scavenger I flotation and 70.27% in Scavenger II flotation. The ash content in the feed was
consistent at 47.5%, while in the product, it varied from 8.36% to 14.07% across the different
stages of flotation. The Cyclojet flotation cell, with its multi-stage process, demonstrated a
progressive improvement in recovery rates along with a significant reduction in ash content,
indicating effective coal beneficiation (Hacifazlioglu & Toroglu; 2012). Coal particles
smaller than 20–25 µm sourced from Newlands coal in Queensland underwent beneficiation
using a two-stage system of Jameson cells, with dimensions of 3500 mm × 1500 mm for the
first stage and 3000 mm × 1500 mm for the second stage. Diesel oil was employed as the
collector, and MIBC served as the frother. The recovery rates for the respective stages were
recorded at 77.0%, 78.1%, 79.5%, and 75.4%, indicating the effectiveness of the process. The
ash content in the feed ranged from 19.6% to 21.8%, while in the product, it varied from
9.96% to 11.6%. This data suggests successful coal beneficiation with notable reductions in
ash content through the two-stage Jameson cell system (Harbort; 2006). Coal particles
smaller than 5 µm sourced from run-of-mine high-sulfur bituminous Illinois No. 6 coal
underwent beneficiation using a 50 mm diameter × 1700 mm high column. The process
involved controlled wash water flow and gas flow rates, resulting in more stable froths. With
an average recovery rate of 90%, significant improvements were observed in ash reduction,
with a reduction of 55% in ash content from the feed, which initially stood at 10.8%. This
suggests successful beneficiation of the coal, resulting in a cleaner product with substantially
reduced ash content (D. Tao et al.; 2000). Coal particles smaller than 500 µm sourced from
the Zonguldak Central Washery Plant (ZCWP) of Turkish Hard Coal underwent beneficiation
using a 30 L-volume and 250 kg/h capacity free jet flotation system. A collector comprising
kerosene and isooctanol in a ratio of 90:10 was applied at a dosage of 400 g/ton. The
recovery rates for the respective stages were recorded at 42.2%, 72.4%, and 55.3%. The ash
content in the feed remained consistent at 44.83%, while in the product, it varied from
10.21% to 18.73%. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of the flotation system in
achieving significant improvements in ash reduction, producing a cleaner coal product for
further use (Guney et al.; 2002). Coal particles smaller than 212 µm sourced from seam coal
in Zonguldak, Turkey, were subjected to beneficiation using a Cyclojet flotation cell. Under
these conditions, a recovery rate of 75.32% was achieved. The ash content in the feed was
recorded at 46.0%, which decreased significantly to 13.25% in the product after
beneficiation. This indicates the successful application of the Cyclojet flotation cell in
effectively reducing ash content and producing a cleaner coal product (Hacifazlioglu; 2011).
Coal particles smaller than 250 µm sourced from coal slurry in Kütahya, Turkey, underwent
beneficiation using a 100 mm diameter × 750 mm high Jameson flotation system with a 40
mm depth downcomer. Water-insoluble hydrocarbons were employed as the collector. This
process resulted in an impressive recovery rate of 94.83%. The ash content in the feed was
initially measured at 33.41%, significantly reduced to 17.86% in the product after
beneficiation. These results demonstrate the efficacy of the Jameson flotation system in
achieving high recovery rates and substantial reduction in ash content, thereby enhancing the
quality of the coal product (Vapur et al.; 2010). Coal particles smaller than 600 µm sourced
from Illinois No.5 seam coal underwent beneficiation using a 150 mm diameter Jameson
flotation cell, where various parameters such as superficial gas velocity, frother
concentration, froth height, and wash water rate were adjusted. The process yielded a
remarkable recovery rate exceeding 90%. Initially, the ash content in the feed stood at 28.9%,
which was significantly reduced to below 8.0% in the product after beneficiation. These
results highlight the successful application of the Jameson flotation cell in achieving high
recovery rates and substantial reduction in ash content, thus enhancing the quality of the coal
product (Mohanty et al.; 1999). Coal fine slimes (<45 µm) sampled from the Dingji coal
preparation plant in China underwent beneficiation using diesel and 2-Octanol as the
collector and frother, respectively. The RK/FD 1.5 type mechanical flotation machine with a
volume of 1.5 L was employed, with the impeller rotation speed controlled at 1800 rpm and
air intake set at 251 L/h. Tap water with a pH of 7.1 and a temperature of 16°C was directly
utilized for the experiments. The process resulted in a recovery rate exceeding 90%,
indicating the effectiveness of the beneficiation process (Zhu et al.; 2018).
Chapter-3
(Fabrication of Froth Flotation unit)
3. Fabrication of Froth Flotation unit
Initially, we have constructed a froth flotation unit for conducting our present study. The
components listed below are necessary and essential parts of a froth flotation unit. This means
that these specific parts are essential for assembling the units that will be used for conducting
the process of separating the ultrafine clean coal particles.

Slurry Tank

In froth flotation of coal, a slurry tank with dimensions of 8.2

inches in length and 8 inches in height is utilized for mixing
pulverized coal with water to form a slurry, and where chemicals
are introduced to generate a froth. The attachment of the froth
selectively to the coal particles, enabling their separation from
impurities through flotation, is facilitated by the slurry tank. Fig 5: Slurry Tank
Efficient flotation separation is ensured by the proper mixing of
coal and water within the slurry tank.

Impeller

The agitator, with specifications of 220-230V, 50-60Hz, 0.3A, 10-

45W, 1300-1550 RPM, is utilized to stir the slurry mixture,
ensuring the uniform distribution of coal particles and chemicals.
This agitation is encouraged to promote the attachment of the froth
to coal particles, thereby facilitating their separation from
Fig 6: Impeller
impurities during flotation. A crucial role is played by the agitator
in maintaining efficient mixing, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the flotation process
in separating coal from undesired materials.

Sparger

A sparger, with an Inlet Diameter ranging

from 0.5 to 0.6 cm and an Orifice Diameter
between 0.5 and 1 mm, is utilized to
introduce air bubbles into the slurry mixture.
Fig 7: Sparger
These bubbles are attached to coal particles,
carrying them to the surface and forming a froth layer. Efficient aeration of the slurry is
ensured by the sparger, facilitating the attachment of the froth to coal particles and promoting
their separation from impurities during flotation. The effectiveness of coal recovery is
enhanced by this process, as coal particles are selectively collected in the froth phase and
subsequently removed from the flotation cell.

Air compressor

The air compressor, with Model XP-AC-24L and

specifications including Power of 2 Hp, Voltage of 220 V,
Displacement of 195L/min, Pressure of 115 Psi, Tank
capacity of 24 L, Speed of 2850 RPM, and Weight of 24 Kg,
is utilized to supply pressurized air to the sparger. This
pressurized air is introduced into the slurry mixture,
Fig 8: Air Compressor
facilitating the formation of air bubbles. A vital role is played
by the air compressor in providing the necessary air pressure to ensure efficient aeration of
the slurry, thereby promoting the attachment of froth to coal particles and enabling their
separation from impurities during flotation. The effectiveness of coal recovery is enhanced by
this process, as coal particles are selectively collected in the froth phase for removal from the
flotation cell.

Electric Panel
The electric panel contains an MCB switch of 6 amps, which is utilized to protect electrical
circuits by automatically disconnecting power in the event of overcurrent or short circuit
faults, along with a plug socket, a 16-amp switch at 240 volts for turning the air compressor
on/off, a 400-watt regulator at 230 volts for controlling the RPM of the agitator, and a 6-amp
switch at 220 volts for turning the agitator on/off, with Fig 9: Electric Panel
electric indicator lamps of 25 amps utilized to visually signal
the status, condition, or operation of electrical circuits, devices, or machinery.

3.1 Fabrication procedure of froth flotation unit

The experimental setup was initiated by placing an online order for Perspex plates, which
were subsequently cut to the required dimensions (8.2-inch length and 8-inch height) at the
local market. Following this, a mixture of chloroform and Perspex plate pieces was
meticulously prepared to facilitate the assembly of the desired plates, ultimately forming a
cubical box. A plywood sheet, specifically obtained from the market, was then utilized as the
foundational base for the instrument. Subsequently, a stand for the agitator was meticulously
constructed utilizing spotted angle bars of specific dimensions. This stand served as the
framework upon which the agitator was suspended, employing nuts and bolts for secure
attachment. Furthermore, the procurement of an electric board base marked the next stage of
the procedure. With meticulous attention to detail, the various components were installed
onto the electric board base. This included the installation of an MCB (Miniature Circuit
Breaker), a speed control regulator for the agitator, ON/OFF switches for both the agitator
and the compressor, an electric line indicator, and an electric plug socket specifically
designated for connecting the compressor plug.

The necessary materials for creating our unit are outlined in Table 3.

Table 3.
Sl. No. Materials Specifications
1. Plywood Board 45inch * 20inch - 1piece
15inch * 10inch - 2piece
2. Slurry Tank 8.2-inch length and 8-inch height
3. Agitator Stand 30-inch height
4. Agitator 220-230V, 50-60Hz, 0.3A, 10-45W, 1300-1550
RPM
5. Sparger Inlet Dia – 0.5-0.6 cm
Orifice dia – 0.5-1mm
6. Compressor Model: XP-AC-24L, Power- 2 Hp, Voltage- 220
V, Displacement- 195L/min, Pressure- 115 Psi,
Tank- 24 L, Speed- 2850 RPM, Weight- 24 Kg
7. Electric MCB Switch 6A
8. Electric Indicator 25A
9. Electric Plug Socket 10/25A, 3pin
10. Electric Switch 16A, 240V (for air compressor socket)
6A, 220v (for agitator)
11. Electric Regulator 400W, 230V
12. Electrical Plug 6A, 3pin
13. Electric Wire 2 core flexible copper wires – 4.5 meter
14. Nut Bolt
Chapter-4
(Experimentation)
4.1 Materials and Methods
During the ongoing investigation, we procured coal samples from the Hingula coal mines, which are
situated in the Talcher Coalfield and are managed by Mahanadi Coalfields Limited in Orissa, India.
These particular samples fall under the sub-bituminous coal classification within the broader
Gondwana coal category. The geographical coordinates pinpoint the mine's location precisely at
20.996N latitude and 85.0163E longitude. To prepare the coal for analysis, we initially processed it by
crushing lumped coal using a ball mill. Subsequently, the crushed coal underwent sieving to achieve
particle sizes specified by ASTM standards. This sieving process involved utilizing sieves with
designated sizes of (-50 + 100), (-100 + 120), (-120 + 140), (-140 + 200), and (-200 + 270).

Before embarking on the experimental phase, we conducted proximate analysis on the five coal
samples, each possessing different particle diameters. This analysis was carried out employing a
muffle furnace to ascertain crucial parameters. These parameters include moisture content, volatile
matter, fixed carbon, and ash content, which collectively provide insights into the coal's characteristics
and suitability for various applications. In Table 4, we meticulously documented the detailed
composition of the feed materials, encompassing crucial data gleaned from the proximate analysis.
This comprehensive composition serves as a foundational reference point for our subsequent
experimental endeavors and analytical assessments.

Sl. No. Particle size Moisture % volatile Ash % Fixed Carbon

matter % %

1 (-50 +100) 6.8 27.93 38.46 26.81

2 (-100 +120) 69.23 27.29 42.15 24.33
 3 (-120 +140) 6.35 29.32 41.04 23.29
4 (-140 +200) 6.46 26.72 41.04 25.33
5 (-200 +270) 4.950 27.82 45.73 21.5

We conducted a froth flotation study on various size fractions using our flotation unit, which has a
capacity of 4 liters. In this study, we employed diesel oil as a collector and pine oil as a frother. Froth
flotation is a widely used technique in mineral processing to separate valuable minerals from gangue
by utilizing differences in their surface properties. The flotation unit facilitates the attachment of
collector molecules to the mineral surfaces, while the frother helps to stabilize the froth layer, aiding
in the efficient separation process. This experimental setup allowed us to investigate the flotation
behavior of different size fractions of the coal samples, providing valuable insights into their
floatability and potential for beneficiation.

Table: Properties of frother

Type Viscosity Sp. Gravity Surface Tension Boiling Point

Pine Oil 30-100 centipoise 0.85-0.95 25-40 155-180ºC
millinewton per
meter

Table: Properties of collector

Type Viscosity Sp. Gravity Surface Tension Boiling Point

Diesel Oil 1.9-4.1 centipoise 0.82-0.86 25-35 180-380ºC
millinewton per
meter
 4.2 Experimental Procedure

Crushed Sieving Coal Slurry Agitator mixing Air Bubble

Coal

Addition of Addition of
Frother (Pine Collector Froth Collection
Oil) (Diesel)

Ash Proximate Analysis Recovered Cleancoal Drying Filtration

The coal sample from the Talcher area was initially crushed into fines using a ball mill. Subsequently,
the screening procedure was carried out by hand sieving, resulting in coal particles of various sizes. A
coal slurry was then prepared using 5 wt.% of the coal sample. Following that, the necessary amounts
of Frother (Pine oil) and collector (Diesel oil) were added to the coal slurry and thoroughly mixed
with an agitator for 30 to 40 seconds. After this mixing process, the air compressor was activated,
which led to the creation of air bubbles inside the slurry tank with the assistance of a sparger. This
process was maintained for 20 minutes, during which clean coal was collected from the froth formed
in the tank. Filtration was then carried out using filter paper to eliminate excess water, with the
collected material being deposited in a Petri dish. Excess oil was subsequently removed from the
clean coal through a drying procedure using a hot air oven, resulting in the gathering of clean coal
without oil residue. Proximate analysis of the recovered clean coal after froth flotation was conducted
using a muffle furnace to characterize its properties.

Following the initial procedure, similar experiments were conducted with variations in particle size,
agitation speed (RPM speed of the agitator), Frother (Pine oil) dosage, and pH adjustment of the coal
slurry. These variations allowed for a comprehensive understanding of how different parameters affect
the froth flotation process and the properties of the recovered clean coal.

Table: Process Parameters to be varied

Varying Process Parameters Range

Frother Dose 10 – 25 ml
Particle Diameters -50 to +270 µm
Impeller Speed 800 - 1300 RPM
pH of Coal slurry 1.85 – 8.57