PHYSICS NOTES FOR ‘O’ LEVEL

(S.2 WORK)

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 STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. It exists in different forms/states of small items
called atoms.
The three states are

 Solids
 Liquids
 Gas
According to kinetic theory matter is made up of small particles known as molecules which are in a state
of continuous random motion. The speed of molecule is increased by increase in temperature.
FORCE BETWEEN MOLECULES

 Cohesion /Cohesive force

This is the force of attraction of molecules of the same substance e.g water- water molecules, mercury –
mercury molecules

 Adhesion/Adhesive force;
This is the force of attraction between the molecules of different substances e.g water – glass
molecules.
STATES OF MATTER
Solids;
The molecules are closely packed together, their particles are not free to move from place to
another but can vibrate along their mean positions ie move to and fro about their mean positions.
This is because their cohesive forces between molecules are strong. Molecules in solids are
arranged in a regular pattern called lattice. They have shape and size.
Liquids;
The molecules in liquids are slightly further apart than in solids. Particles are free to move about
colliding with each other and with the walls of the container. The cohesive force holding the
molecules are weaker than in solids.
They have no definite shape but take up shape of the container.
Gases;
In gases the molecules are much further apart and free compared to those in liquids and so
free that they are in constant random motion moving with high speed as they collide with one
another and with the walls of a container. The cohesive force is much weaker in gas and can
spread easily to occupy the whole volume of a container. Gases lack definite shape and size.

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 Model; illustrating the states matter.

Diffusion;
It is the movement of molecules of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.
Demonstration of Diffusion in Gases;
a) b) Gas mixed

Two Gas jars one full of nitrogen dioxide and the other gas full of air as shown in (a) above.
When the gas cover is removed as shown in (b) the gases mix up and the whole become filled with the
Brown gas(Nitrogen dioxide)
NB: The lighter gas diffuses faster than the heavier gas.
Demonstration of diffusion in liquids:

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  Half fill a glass beaker with water
 Using a funnel with a long tube reaching the bottom, slowly pour saturated copper (II) sulphate
solution down the tube to form a separate layer.
 Carefully remove the funnel so that the liquids are mixed.
 After some time, the blue colour spreads throughout the beaker. This is due to diffusion of
liquid molecules.
Note: The rate of diffusion increases when temperature is increased.
Behavior of liquids on the surface;
When water is dropped on a glass surface it wets it and spreads out in a thin surface because adhesive
force between the water molecules and glass is greater than the cohesive force between water
molecules.

When mercury is dropped on a glass surface it forms spherical droplets or large flatten drop because
cohesive forces between mercury molecules is greater than adhesive forces between mercury and
glass.
Spherical droplets of mercury

Large flattened drop

SURFACE TENSION
This is the effect of force on the surface of a liquid which makes it behave like a stretched elastic skin.
Or it is a tangential force on surface of a liquid acting perpendicularly per unit length across any line on
the surface.
Effects of surface tension;
Because of surface tension,
1. Steel needle when carefully placed on top of water floats, despite its greater density.
2. Some birds and insects can walk on the surface of water.
3. Some drops of water from the top are in form of a spherical shape.
4. Soap film inside the cotton loop when broken makes or forms a circle as shown below

Make a ring of thin wire. Tie a thread loosely across the middle as shown in (i). Dip the ring in soap
solution or liquid detergent so that a film forms across it. Break the film on one side of the thread. The
thread pulls tight, forming a circle as shown in (ii).This because surface tension stretches molecules
on the liquid surface farther apart than normal.

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Explanation on surface tension:
Surface tension is due to molecules on liquid surface being slightly further apart like those in a stretched
wire. Therefore experience attractive forces from their neighbours in liquid surface. The forces stretch
the molecules on the surface, making it behave like a stretched elastic skin.
Reduction of surface tension;
Surface tension can be reduced by;
1. Increasing the temperature of the liquids
2. Addition of detergents or soap solution.
Experiment to demonstrate surface tension
- Some water is poured in a clean trough
- It is then left to settle and a filter paper (blotting paper) is placed on the water surface.
- A pin smeared with Vaseline is carefully placed on top of the filter paper as shown below.

After sometime, the filter paper will absorb water and sink while the pin will remain floating on the
water surface.
CAPPILARITY/CAPPILLARY ACTION:
This is the rise or depression of a liquid in a capillary tube.

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The rise of water in a capillary tube is because the cohesive force between the water molecules is less
than the adhesive force between molecules of glass and water. It is also for this reason that water
spreads over glass surface
Water spreads
Glass surface
When similar capillary tubes are dipped in mercury, each surface is depressed below the outside level
of the beaker and the surface curves down wards as shown below.

Mercury is depressed more in narrow tube than in a large one. This is because cohesive forces between
molecules of mercury are greater than adhesive forces between molecules of mercury and glass. It is
also for this reason that mercury does not wet glass but forms droplets on glass as shown.
Mercury droplets

Glass surface
Application of capillarity;
1. The rise of oil in a lamp wick upwards.
2. Absorption of water in a towel.
3. The rise of water in mineral salts in plants
4. Action of a blotting paper.
Disadvantages of capillarity;
House bricks and concrete are porous. Capillary action is likely to draw water upwards from
The ground through them, making the building dump (wet).This problem is overcome by putting
Water proof layer made from plastic that is placed in the layers of bricks at the bottom of the house.

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 BROWNIAN MOTION
It is the random movement of the molecules of a substance in a gaseous stage.
When smoke particles are suspended in air and observed through a microscope. They seem to be in
a state of continuous random motion.

The smoke particles are seen as bright specks moving in continuous random motion. The bright specks
are due to collision between smoke particles and gas molecules.
The random motion is due to smoke particles colliding with air molecules which were moving randomly.
When the temperature of the glass cell is increased the random motion increases (smoke particles are
seen to move faster), showing that increase in temperature increase the kinetic energy of molecules.
OIL DROP EXPERIMENT
Estimation of the size of an oil molecule.

 A trough is cleaned thoroughly and clean water poured on it.

 Lycopodium powder is sprinkled on the water surface.
 Using a burette a drop of oil of known volume is allowed to gently fall on the surface of water.
 The oil spreads forming a circular film.

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The diameter “d” of the patch is measured using a millimeter scale. Several experiments are performed
using fresh water and the average diameter “d” of the patch is determined.
Since the patch is cylindrical, the volume of the patch is;
Where h – is the thickness of the oil patch.
V = πr2h

= π( )2h

V =π h

4V = πd2h
Therefore the thickness of oil drop

h=

Assumptions made in the experiment;

 The oil spreads to form a film of one molecule thick.

 The oil patch is cylindrical in shape.
 There are no air spaces between the molecules.
 The oil drop is spherical in shape.
 The volume of the oil drop is equal to the volume of oil patch.
Example;
1. In an oil drop experiment the radius of the oil was found to be 10cm and the volume of the used was
1.1 x 10-5cm3.Calculate;
(i) The diameter of the film
(ii) The thickness of the patch
(iii) The size of the molecule

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 Answer
Diameter of the patch d = 2r= 2 x 10 = 20cm

Thickness of the patch h =

or Thickness h =

= 3.5 x 10-8cm
The size of the drop = thickness of the patch
= 3.5 x 10-8cm

Note: Thickness h =

i.e h =

2. A student made an oleic acid oil of volume 0.005cm3 to make an oil film on the surface of water.
The average diameter of the oil film was found to be 10cm.Find the thickness of the oil film.

Thickness h =

=6.37x10-5m
3. Niah, picked on oleic acid oil drop of diameter 0.5mm using a wire and allowed it to drop on a water
surface containing lycopodium powder in a circular patch had an average diameter of 200mm.Find the
thickness of oil film.
Diameter = 0.5mm

Volume of spherical drop V = r3

= (0.25)3

= 0.0208 mm3
Volume of the patch = volume of spherical drop

r2h = 0.0208

(100)2h = 0.0208
h =2.08 x 10-6cm

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 4. If 1.8 x 10-4cm3 of oil spreads to form a patch of area150cm2.Calculate the thicknesses of the oil
patch.

Thickness h = = 1.8 x

= 1.2 x 10-6cm

Moments and equilibrium

The turning of a force is the moment of force.
Moment of a force about a point depends on
i) The size of force
ii) On perpendicular distance from a line of action of force from the pivot.

Moment of a force is = force x perpendicular distance

M = f x d where m is moment of force f is the force and d is the perpendicular distance.
Definition
Moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of it’s line
of action from the pivot S.I unit is Nm
ILLUSTRATION
Pivot p line of action of force

d F
Moment of force about p
m=Fxd
Types of moments
i) Clock wise moment
These are moments produce clockwise turning effects

ii) Ant clock wise effects

These are moments produce anti clock turning effects.

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Static equilibrium
A body acted upon by a number of several forces in a static equilibrium when sum of clock wise
moment about any point = sum of anti clock wise about the same point.
F1 F3 F4
A D C E B

F2

If AB is in equilibrium then:-
1. Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces
F1 +F3 +F4 = F2
2. Sum of clockwise = sum of anti clock wise moment
F1AC = F2DC + F4CE

Conditions of a body to be in a mechanical equilibrium

1. The resultant force on body must be zero
2. The sum of clock wise moment about a turning point must be equal to the sum of anti clock
wise moments.

PRINCIPAL OF MOMENTS
It states that for a body in equilibrium , under the action of several forces , the sum of clock wise
moments about a point is equal to the sum of anti clockwise moment about the same point.

Sum of clock wise moment = sum of anti clock wise moment.

F2 Xd2 = F1 X d1
Example.1
Forces of 8Np and 4n act on a body as shown.

8N 4N
30cm 40cm
20cm
p

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Find the value of P if the system is in equilibrium.
Anti clock wise moment = clock wise moment
4 x 40 + p x 20 = 8 x 30
P = 4N
3. Forces below act on the plant as shown.

1m 1m x

6N 4N 8N

If the body is in equilibrium find the distance x

Anti clock wise = clock wise moment

6 x 2 + 4 x1 =8x
X = 2m

Center of gravity
Centre of gravity is a point on the body through which the weight of the body acts.

Object Centre of gravity

Cube or Cuboid It is the intersection of diagonals
Uniform rectangular square sheet. At the intersectional of the diagonal
Uniform cylinder At the centre of its axis
Uniform sphere At the centre
Uniform rod or bar At the centre

Example:
(a) What is meant by centre of gravity?
(b) (i) Define the moment of a force.
(i) A uniform metre rule is balanced at 30cm mark. When a load of 8N is hang at zero mark. Find
the weight of a metre ruler
0cm 30cm 50cm 100cm
30cm 20cm

8N W

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 Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise moment
W x 2 = 8 x 30
W = 12N W is the weight of metre rule.
2. A uniform metre rule pivoted at 10cm mark balances when a mass of 400g is suspended at 0cm
mark as shown below.
0 10cm 100cm

400g 10cm 40cm

W

Calculate the weight of the metre rule.

Sum of clockwise moment = Sum of anticlockwise moment
W x 40 = 400 x 10
W = 100g
Weight = Mg

= x 10
= 1N
Determination of centre of gravity of an irregular object e.g cardboard
Plumb line method;

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  Make 3 holes A, B, C at different points near the edge of the lamina.
 Suspend the lamina in hole A and the plumb line on a nail on a retort stand.
 Mark point A, where the thread touches the opposite side of edge of the lamina.
 Repeat the procedure on hole B and C to get A and B.
 Draw line of intersection of lines AA, BB and CC this gives the centre of gravity (C.G)
STABILITY:
The stability of a body depends on entirely two factors namely:-
i) Position of the centre of gravity.
ii) Size of base area.
To increase the stability of on a body, the following should be done.

 Increase the base area.

 Lower the centre of gravity by making the base heavier

Types of stability equilibria

 Stable equilibrium
 Unstable equilibrium
 Neutral equilibrium
Stable equilibrium.
This occurs when the center of gravity is in the lowest possible position
The body doesn’t over turn when slightly displaced but returns to its original position after the
displacement.
When slightly displaced, the center of gravity is raised and the line of action of the weight acts with
in the base.
Moment decreases when a body is slightly displaced.
Unstable equilibrium
This occurs when the centre of gravity is in the highest position. The body overturns when slightly
displaced.
When the center of gravity is lowered and the line of action of the weight acts outside the base.
Natural equilibrium
This is when a body is slightly displaced but the position of its center of gravity remain at the same
height.

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Illustration

Application of principal of moments.

 Action of a beam balance / weighing scale.

 Action of a sea saw.
 Action of in determination of centre of gravity of a beam
 In determination of mass of the weight of a beam.
 In determination of relative density of a solid.

Determination of mass of a beam or rod or any straight material .

Setup bA p G B
Mg mg

Procedure

 Locate the centre of gravity of the beam AB by balancing it horizontally on a knife edge.
 Note the position of the center of gravity .
 Again balance AB horizontally on a knife edge using a mass at point d as shown in the diagram
 Measure distance DP = a and PG = b.
 Calculate the mass from sum of clockwise moment = sum of anticlockwise.

Mg x b = Mg x a

M= =

M= =

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 A uniform beam 5m long weighing 10kg is carried by 2 men each 1m from either ends of the beam if
the mass of 5 kg rests 2m away from one end

i)
ii)

Taking moment at A

Sum of clockwise moment = sum of anticlockwise moment

50 x 100 x 1.5 = RB x3

200= 3RB

RB =

RB = 66.67N

Upward force = downward force

RA + RB = 50 + 100
RA + 66.67 = 150
RA = 83.33N.

Reaction at A= 83.33N
Reaction at B = 66.67N.

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2.A uniform beam of weight 6N length BM rests on support p and q which are 1m 4m either ends weight
over100N are placed at the ends of the rod as shown in the diagram. Calculate the reaction at p and q.

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 MOTION
Terms used.
Speed
This is the rate of change of distance moved with time.

Speed =
S.I unit = m/s

Distance
This is the length moved between two points.
S.I units = metres
Displacement
This is the distance moved in the specified direction S.I unit meters

Velocity
This is the rate of change of displacement. OR is the rate of change distance moved in a specified
direction.
S.I unit m/s
Acceleration
A body travelling with changing velocity is said to be accelerating
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Acceleration a=

But change in velocity = final velocity – initial velocity

= v –u
Acceleration in velocity a = S.I unit: m/s2

Example 1
A car increases its speed steadily from 30 km/hr to 60km/hr in one minute
a) Determine its average speed during this time in
i) km/hr
ii) km/min
iii) m/s
b) how far does it travel whilst increasing its speed
i) average speed = where v – final velocity / speed
=
= 45km/ hr
ii) average speed =

= 0.75km/min

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iii) Average speed =

= 12.5m/s

b) Distance = speed x time

=12.5 x 60
=750m

2. A motor car is uniformly retarded and brought to rest from a speed of 108km/hr in 15 seconds. Find
its acceleration

Initial velocity u =

=
= 30m/s

Final velocity = 0 m/s

Acceleration =

= -2mls2

The minus (-) sign means the car is accelerating in opposite direction to its initial velocity i.e. the
body is decelerating.

Uniform speed

A body is said to move with uniform speed if its rate of chance of distance moved with time is
constant.

Uniform velocity

A body is said to move with uniform velocity if its rate of change of displacement is constant.

When a body moves uniform velocity, it travels equal distances in equal time intervals. A graph of
distance against time is a straight line. its initial velocity must be equal to its final velocity.

Non uniform velocity

This is when the rate of change of displacement is changing. The body covers different distances in
equal time intervals.

Uniform acceleration

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 This is when the change of velocity is constant. When a body moves with uniform acceleration, the
final velocity is not equal to the initial velocity

Equations of motion (Newton’s equations of motion)

Equation

1. Consider a body moving at initial velocity u accelerates with uniform acceleration a to the final
velocity v in time t
Then acceleration a =
a=
V = u + at 1st equation.

2nd equation

A body moving with uniform acceleration has an average velocity equal to half of the sum of its initial
velocity u and final velocity v.

Average velocity = substituting from v in equation 2

Total distance s = average velocity x time

S=( ) t but from equation 1, V = u + at

S=( t=( )t

S=ut+ at2 second equation.

3rd equation
This is obtained by eliminating time t from equation 1and2.
S=

S=( ) ( v + u)(v - u) = 2aS

V2 = u2+2aS 3rd equation.
The three equations of motion are
i) V= u + at
ii) S = u t +½at2
iii) V2 = u2 +2as

Example

A car starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly at a rate of 1m/sec2 in 20 second.

a) Find its final velocity.

b) The distance covered.

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 a) V = u + at
= 0+1 x 20
= 20m/s

b) S = u t +½ at2
= 0 x20 +½ x1x202
= 200m

2. A car accelerates uniformly at a speed of 20mls for 4 seconds . find

a) Final velocity if acceleration is 2m/s2

b) Distance traveled.
a) V = u +at
V = 20 +2 x4
V = 28m/s

b) S = u t +½at2
S =20 x4 + ½ x2 x4
S = 96m.

3. A body moving with velocity of 20 m/s accelerates to a velocity of 40mls in 5 second. Find
a) Acceleration 4m/s
b) Distance traveled in 5s.

a=
=
= 4m/s2

S = u t + ½at2
S =20 x 5+ ½ x4 x52
S =150m
4. A body at rest at height of 20m falls freely to the ground. Calculate
i) The velocity with which it hits the ground
ii) The time before striking the ground.
Solution
i) a = g =10
V2 =u2 +2as
V2 =02+2 x10 x20
V =20m/s
ii) V = u +at
20 = 0+10 + t t =2s.

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 Graphs of motion

Distance – time graph

(i)For a body at rest

Distance/m

Time/s

If a body is at rest its distance from a certain point does not change as time passes

ii) For a body moving with uniform velocity

Distance/m

Time/s
If a body is moving with the same velocity it travels equal distance in equal intervals of time the
object distance increases by equal increase in time.

iii) Body moving with non uniform velocity

Distance/m

Time/s
Velocity is increasing the distance travelled in each second increases

iv) Body moving with decreasing acceleration (retardation)

For a body whose velocity is decreasing the graph bends towards the horizontal. Velocity decreasing
(retardation)
Distance/m

Time/s

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Velocity time graphs
i) Body moving with uniform velocity

Velocity (m/s)

Time /s

ii) Body moving with uniform acceleration

Velocity

(m/s)

Time /s

iii) Body moving with uniform deceleration.

Velocity

( m/s)

Time(s)

iv) Body moving with non uniform acceleration.

Velocity

(m/s)

Time(s)
Note i) the area under a velocity time graph gives the distance covered by the body.
ii) The slope of a uniform velocity time graph gives the uniform acceleration.

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Example

1. A car starts from rest and steadily accelerates for10s to a velocity of 20mls. It continues with this
velocity for a further 20s before .it is brought to rest in 20s
a) Draw a velocity time graph to represent this motion.
b) Calculate

i) Acceleration

ii) Deceleration

iii) Distance travelled

iv) Average speed

Velocity( m/s) I II III

0 10 30 50 Time/s

b(i) acceleration

a= = = = 2m/s2

ii) Deceleration

a= = = =-1mls

Deceleration = -a = 1m/s2

iii) Distance
Distance traveled = area under a velocity time graph

S = ½bh+ L x w + ½bh

= ½ x10 x20 + 20 x20+½ x20 x 20

= 700m

Iv) Average speed =

= 14m/s

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2. A car from rest accelerates to velocity 30mls in 10sit continues at uniform velocity for 30s and then
decelerate so that it stops in 20s
a) Draw a velocity time graph to represent its motion
b) Calculate
i) Acceleration
ii) Deceleration
iii) Distance travelled
iv) Average speed.

a)

V = 30 B C

Velocity

m/s

A 10 40 60 D

Time/s

Acceleration a = = =3m/s2

i) Deceleration

a= = = -1.5m/s2 Deceleration = 1.5m/s2

i) Distance travelled
Total distance = total area under a v –t graph
Covered
= ½bh + L x w +½bh
= ½ x10 x30 + 30 x30 +½x20 x30
= 1350m
ii) Average speed
Average speed = =22.5m/s
3. A racing car starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration of 3m/s 2 for 4 seconds. Then
moves with uniform velocity for 2 second. it is brought to rest after a further 2 seconds
a) Draw a velocity time graph for motion of the car
b) Find total distance travelled
c) Average speed.

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 a) 12 B C

Velocity

( m/s)

0A 4 6 8 D time/s

V = u +at
= 0 + 3 x4
= 12m/s
a) Total distance covered
Total distance = total area under a velocity time graph.
=½bh +Lx w + ½bh
= ½ x4 x12 + 3 x12+ ½ x2x12
= 72m
Average speed = = =9m/s

Question

1. The graph below represents a velocity time graph of a body in motion.

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Velocity m/s a b c

15

0 6 12 18 time/s
i) Describe the motion of the body.

A car moves with uniform acceleration of 15m/s for 6 seconds it then continues at uniform velocity of
6 seconds. It is then brought to rest in 6 seconds.

i) Calculate the total distance travelled

ii) Total distance travelled = total area under a v- t graph
iii) Determine the average speed.

2. A body of mass 60 kg starts moving with an initial velocity of 15 mls and accelerates at a rate of
4m/s in 5s, then maintains a constant velocity for another 5s and brought to rest in 7s.

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 i) Draw a velocity –time graph to represent this motion.

ii) Calculate the total distance travelled

iii) Calculate the retarding force

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

For a body falling under gravity, acceleration due to gravity is positive but for a body thrown vertically
upwards acceleration due to gravity is negative. At maximum height, the body is momentarily at rest
therefore final velocity is 0

Equation of motion for a body falling freely under gravity (g)

V = u+gt

S = ut +½gt2

V2 =u2 +2gs

Equation of motion for a body thrown vertically up wards

V = u –gt2

S =ut -½gt2

V2 = u2- 2gs

example

1.A stone is raised from rest at point 20m above the ground so as to fall freely vertically down
wards. Find

a) Time to land on the ground.

b) Velocity

a) Using s= u t + gt2
20 = 0 + ½ x10 t2
t =2seconds
b) Using
V=u+gt
= 0 + 10 x 2
= 20m/s

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2. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30mls find

a) The maximum height to reach the ground

u = 30m/s

V2 = u2 – 2gs
0 = 900 -2 x10 x s
= 900 -20s

S = 45m

b) Time taken to reach the maximum height

S = u t +½gt2
45 =0 + ½ x 10t2
t= 3 seconds
c) Time taken to return to the starting point.
V = u +gt
30 =0 + 10t
t = 3 seconds.

3. A stone thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 14m/s neglecting air resistance, find
a) The maximum height reached.
0 = 196 -2 x10s
0 = 196 -20s
S = 9.8m
b) The time taken before it reached the ground
V= u + g t
14 = 0 + 9.8t

t =1.4 seconds

Acceleration of free fall is constant for a body falling from rest

S= u t +½gt2
S = ½gt2
S = (constant)t2
S t2

Distance (s) slope = g

t2/s2

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 Distance/m

Time t/s

Projectile motion

A V

Distance B

x C

Time

In projectile, the horizontal velocity of the body in motion remain the same throughout whole
acceleration due to gravity continues to act on the body vertically downwards and it doesn’t affect
the horizontal motion of the body.

Horizontal motion, distance x =t

Vertical motion, distance is s =h

h = gt2

i.e. S =u t + 2

S =h and u =0

S =½gt2

Where v is horizontal velocity given the body and t is the time of flight.

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Example

1. An object is dropped from a helicopter. if the object hits the ground after 2 seconds, calculate the
height from which object was dropped

t =2s, g = 10mls

h =½gt2

= ½ x 10 x4 = 20m

2. An object is dropped from helicopter at a height of 45m above the ground.

a) If the helicopter is at rest, how long does the object take to reach the ground and what is its
velocity on arrival.
b) If the helicopter falls with a velocity of 1mls when the object is released, what would be the final
velocity of the object?

a) h = gt2
45 = ½ x10t2

t =3 seconds

b) Velocity on arrival
V=u+gt
= 0+10 x3
= 30m/s

Question

1. An object is released from an air craft travelling horizontally with a constant velocity of
200m/s at a height of 500m ignoring air resistance

a) How long does it take the object to reach the ground?

b) Find the horizontal distance covered by the object leaving the air craft and reaching the ground.

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TICKER – TAPE TIMER

A ticker timer is a steel strip which vibrates rapidly and print dots on a length of a paper tape pulled
through it. It prints 50 dots on a tape every second (frequent (f) = 50Hz)

A tick timer is used to measure speed or velocity and acceleration of bodies in motion.

Experiment with a ticker – timer

The paper tape is pulled by a trolley moving down an inclined plane as shown above.

Different results are obtained on the speed of the trolley.

Typical results

- Trolley moving with uniform speed spacing between successive dots i.e. the same thru out.

- The trolley is accelerating the spacing between dots gets bigger and bigger.

- Trolley decelerating, the spacing between successive dots get smaller and smaller.

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Example

1. The paper tape shown below was made by a trolley moving with uniform acceleration. if the ticker
timer operated with a frequency of 100Hz, determine
i) Initial velocity
ii) Final velocity
iii) Acceleration.

A 1cm B C 2cm D

i) t= = time taken to print successive dots, where n is the number of spaces between dots.

Number of spaces between AB = 2

Time taken a long AB = = 0.02s

Initial velocity or speed u = = = 0.5m/s

Number of spaces between CD = 2

Time taken a long CD = =0.02

Final velocity / speed = = = v =1m/s

ii) Acceleration a = where t is time taken from B –D

= and t = 10 x = 0.1s
= 5m/s2

Below is a tape by a tickle – timer of frequency 50Hz

A B C D

10cm 70 dots 34cm

in this space
Calculate
i) Initial velocity
ii) Final velocity
iii) The acceleration of the trolley

32
 Solution
i) Initial velocity
Time taken along AB = = 0.06s
Initial velocity or speed u = = = 1.67m/s.
ii) Time taken long CD= = 0.08s
Final velocity 1 speed = = =4.25m/s
iii) Acceleration a = where t is time taken from B to D
= t= =1 .46s
= 3.11m/s
= 1.77m/s2

Note – usually, the first and last section of the tape are ignored in experiments because the motion
of the trolley is unsteady and the dots are near each other.

2. The ticker timer below printed dots. Assuming it vibrates at frequency of 20Hz, calculate
i) Initial velocity
ii) Final velocity.
iii) Acceleration

A B C D

1m 300cm

Solution

i) Time taken along AB = = 0.1m2

Initial velocity or speed = = =10mls
ii) Time taken a long CD = 5 X =0.25m
Final velocity or speed = = = 12mls
iii) Acceleration a = where t is time taken from B to D

= = 4.5mls t=9x = 0.45m/s The figure below shows a tape

produced by a ticker timer operating at a main frequency of 50Hz

A B C D

3cm 7cm

33
Calculate the acceleration shown by the tape
Initial velocity
Time between AB = 1 x = 0.02 s
Initial velocity = = = 1.5m/s
Time taken between CD = 1 x = 0.02s
Final velocity = = =3.5m/s

Acceleration a = where t time taken from B – D

a= t = 25 x = 0.5s
= 4m/s2

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

Acceleration due to gravity is the rate of change of velocity with time of a freely falling object.

Experiment to determine acceleration due to gravity

Using a simple pendulum

The apparatus is arranged as below.

Clamp string

Pendulum
bob

Clock

Measure the length holding bob from its center

Push the bob slightly, it will begin to accelerate

Note when it is on one side and start the stop clock while counting the oscillation until it makes about
20.

Stop the clock, read and record the time for 20oscillation. Repeat the procedure for various length of
the pendulum l= 0.8m , 0.6m, 0.5m, 0.4m and 0.3m.

Record your results in a suitable table including T and T2

34
Plot a graph of l against T2.Obtain acceleration due to gravity from:

g = - 4π2S where S is the slope of the graph.

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

1ST law of motion (law of inertia)

It states that a body continues in its state of rest or motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an
external force.

This law suggests that everybody has inertia.

INERTIA

Inertia is the tendency of the body to remain at rest or if moving, to continue in its motion in a
straight line with uniform velocity

The larger the mass of the body, the greater is its inertia therefore the mass of the body is a
measure of its inertia.

2nd law of motion

It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force
and takes place in the direction of the force.

Momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity i.e momentum = mass x velocity

S .I unit = kg m/s or kg ms-1

Change in momentum = m v – mu = m (v –u) where m v – final momentum and

M u – initial momentum

Applied force F

F m( )

F ma

F = k ma Where k is constant of proportionality.

From the definition of a Newton – is a force which gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1m/s2.

If F = 1N, m = 1kg, a = 1mls2

F = k ma 1=kx1x1 k =1 hence F = ma

35
 Example;

1. A 20 kg mass travelling at 5mls is accelerating to 8mls in 10s. calculate

i) The change in momentum.
ii) The rate of change in momentum
iii) The applied force.

i) M =20 kg u = 5mls v = 8mls t =10s

Change in momentum = m (v –u)
= 20 (8 – 5)
= 60 kg m/s
ii) Rate of change of momentum =m ( =20 ( = 6N
iii) Applied force = rate of change of momentum
= 6N
2. A body of mass 600g moving at 10mls is accelerated uniformly at 2mls 2 for 4s . calculate
i) Change in momentum
ii) Rate of change in momentum
iii) The force acting on a body.

i) M= a = 20m/s t = 4s

Change in momentum
V = u + at
= 10 + 2 x4
V = 18m/s

Change in momentum =m (v -u)

=0.6(18 -10)

= 4.8kgm/s

i) Rate of change in momentum.

=m( )
=0.6 ( )
= 1.2N
ii) The force acting on a body = rate of change of momentum
= 1.2N

3rd law of motion

It states that action and reaction are equal but opposite.
This means that when ever force acts on a body, an equal and opposite force act on the same o body.
Examples include:
i) A person walking exerts his weight (action on the ground and the ground exerts an equal
upward force (reaction on him or her)
ii) Two cars which collide both get damaged because each car exerts equal but opposite
force.

36
Example

1. A one turn car travelling at 20 m/s is accelerated at 2ms2 for 5 seconds. calculate
i) Change in momentum
ii) The rate of change of momentum
iii) Accelerating force acting on a body.
i) Change in momentum = m(v –u)
= 1000(30 -20)
= 10000kgm/s

ii) The rate of change of momentum = m( )

= 1000 ( )
= 2000N
iii) Accelerating force acting on the body = rate of change of momentum
= 2000N
Question

1. A block of mass 500g is pulled 4m rest on a horizontal friction less bench by a steady force (F)
and travels 8m in 2 seconds

Find
(a) Acceleration

(b) Value of F.

MOTION OF A BODY IN A LIFT

a) Lift at rest
R

mg
R – Reaction of a body
Mg- person’s weight
When the lift is at rest, a person feels his / her normal weight using
F = ma where F =R – Mg and a = 0
R – Mg = ma but a =0
R –mg =0
R =mg

37
b) Lift ascending ( moving upwards )

mg

R – Mg =ma
R = Mg + ma
R = m (g + a)
The person feels heavier than his normal weight.

c) Lift descending (moving down wards)

mg

Mg – R = ma
R = Mg – Ma
R = M (g - a)
The person feels loss in weight

d) Lift descending with acceleration a = g

R
a=g

mg
Mg – R =ma
R =Mg –mg
R=m (g –g)
ON

38
Some one feels weight less.

1. Find the reaction of a woman of mass 70 kg standing in a lift if the lift is

(a) at rest
(b) ascending upwards with uniform acceleration with 4mls2
(c) moving down wards with uniform acceleration with 4mls2
Solution
a) R = mg
= 70 x 10
= 700N
b) R –Mg =ma
R= ma +mg
= m (a +g)
= 70(4 +10)
=980N

c) Mg – R = mg
R = mg –mg
R = m (g – g )
= 70(10 -10)
= 0N.

d) R = m(g- a)
= 70 (10 -4)
= 420N.

COLLISION AND LINEAR MOMENTUM

Linear momentum is the product of mass and velocity for bodies moving in a straight line. S.I units: kg
m/s.

Collision

There are two types of collision

i) Inelastic collision
ii) Elastic collision

39
INELASTIC COLLISION
This is a type of collision where colliding bodies stick together and move with in the same velocity after
collision e.g. a bullet shot at a thief etc.
u1 u2 v
A B
m1 m2 m1 m2

m1 u1 + m2u2 = (m1 +m2) v

ELASTIC COLLISION
This is a type of collision where colliding bodies separate after collision and move with independent
velocities

u1 u2 V1 V2
A B A B
M1 M2 M1 M2

m1u1+ m2u2 = m1v1 +m2v2 where u1 and u2 are initial velocities v1 and v2 are final velocities

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

It states that when two or more bodies collide, the total momentum of bodies remains constant provided
no external forces act i.e.
Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision.

Example

1. A body of mass 2kg travelling at 8m/s, collide with a body of mass 3kg travelling at 5m/s in the
same direction. If after collision the two bodies move together. Calculate the velocity which the two
bodies move.

By principal of linear momentum

Total momentum before collision= total momentum after collision

M1u1 +m2u2 = (m1+m2)v

2 x8 +3 x5 = (2 + 3)v

V = 6.2m/s

40
2. A body of mass 20 kg travelling at 5mls collides with another stationary body at a mass of 10kg and
they move separately in the same direction if the velocity of the 20 kg mass after collision was 3mls,
calculate the velocity with which 10kg mass will move.

A + B A B

20kg 10kg 20kg 10kg

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision

M1u1 +m2u2 = m1v1 +m2v2

20 x5 +10 x0 = 20 x3 +10v2

V2 = 4m/s

3. A body of mass 8kg travelling at 20mls collides with a stationary object and they move together with
a velocity of 15mls Calculate the mass of the stationary body.(2.7kg)

A 20m/s B 0m/s 15m/s

8kg M= ? 8kg m=?

m1u1+m2u2 = (m1+m2)v

8 x20 +0 = (8+m2)v

M2 = 2.7kg

EXPLOSION

Momentum is conserved in explosions such that which occur when a rifle is fired. Before firing, the
total momentum is zero since both rifle and bullet are at rest.

During firing, the riffle and the bullet receive equal but opposite momentum, so the total momentum
after firing is zero

Mf v f + Mb V b =0

Mb V b= -Mf V f where Mb –mass of bullet

Mf – mass 0f riffle

V b- velocity of bullet

V f – recoil velocity of the riffle.

Recoil velocity.

When the bullet leaves the barrel, the total momentum must be conserved there fore the bullet
moves forward, the gun jokes backwards (recoils) with a velocity called recoil velocity.

41
 Example

1. A bullet of mass 50g is fired with a velocity of 400mls from a gun of 5kg. Calculate the recoil
velocity of a gun.

Mg vg +m b v b =0

0 X vg + x400 = 0

Vg =-4m/s (-ve means opposite direction)

2. A 50kg girl jump out of a rowing boat of mass 300kg to the bank with a horizontal velocity of
3mls. With what velocity does the boat begin to move backwards

Mg vg +m b v b = 0
300 x vg +50 x3 = 0
Vg = -0.5m/s

Question

1. (a) Out line the similarities and the differences between elastic and inelastic collisions

b) Fatimah of mass 60running at 64 km/hr jumps on a stationary trolley of mass 20kg. if the
collision is perfectly inelastic. Find

i) Loss in kinetic energy

ii) Final kinetic energy

APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S 3RD LAW OF MOTION AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

i) Inflated balloon
When a balloon filled with air is released in space so that the air can escape from the balloon. The
balloon darts forward in space until all the air has escaped.

Explanation

As air escapes from the balloon at a high speed backwards, it does so with a big force. According to
Newton’s law of motion, the air exerts a reaction on the balloon causing it to move forward with the
same force.
From the principle of conservation of momentum, a backward momentum due to the air escaping sets
up equal but opposite forward momentum, on the balloon causing it to move forward.

42
ii) Rocket and jet engines.

Jet engine

To start the engine, an electric motor sets the compressor to rotate. The compressor is like a fan; its
blades draw in and compress air at the front of the engine. Compression raises the temperature of
the air before it reaches the combustion chamber.

Then fuel (kerosene) is injected and burns to produce a high speed stream of hot gas which
escapes from the rear of the engine, as a result, the gaseous product set a reaction of equal but
opposite momentum to the plane making it propel forward.

Rocket engine

Rockets, like jet engines, obtain their thrust from the hot gases they inject by a fuel. They can
however, where there is no air since they can carry the oxygen needed for burning instead of taking
it from the atmosphere as does the jet engine. Space rockets use liquid oxygen (at -183oC).
Common fuels are kerosene and liquid hydrogen (at -253oC), but solid fuels are also used.

Differences between a rocket and jet ingine

A jet engine doesn’t go outside atmosphere because it uses atmospheric oxygen to burn its fuel while,
a rocket engine goes out of atmosphere since it burn fuel when it is in space because it can be loaded
with liquid oxygen cylinders.

43
 ARCHIMEDES AND FLOATATION
ARCHMEDE’S PRINCIPLE
It is an upward force due to the fluid resisting being compress when any object is immersed or
submerged into a fluid, its weight appears to have been reduced because it experiences on a upthrust
from the fluid.

Statement of Archimedes’s principal

It states that when a body is wholly or equal to weight of the fluid displacement i.e upthrust = weight of
fluid displaced.

Experiment to verify Archimedes’s principal.

An object is weighed in air using a spring balance to obtain w1 – the eureka can is completely filled with
the liquid and a beaker is put under its spout. The body is then immersed in the liquid.

The new weight w2 is also load on the spring balance.

The liquid collected in the small beaker is weighed to determine its weight w3. it is found that w3 = w1 –
w2.

The weight of the body which completely immersed or submerged is called the apparent weight. The
apparent weight is loss then the weight of the body because when the body is immersed it experiences
up thrust.

Examples
1. A glass block weighs 25N. When wholly immersed in water block appears to weigh 15 N
calculate the up thrust.
Upthrust = weight in air – weight in a fluid (apparent weight)
= Wa – Wf
= 25 – 15
= 10N.

44
2. A body weighs 1N in air of 0.3N when wholly immersed in water. Calculate the weight of displaced
water.
Up thrust = Wb – Wf
= 1 – 2.8
= 0.2N.

For a body completely immersed.

Volume of the body immersed = volume of displaced fluid

M = p x v where p – density of displaced fluid

V – Volume of body = volume of displaced fluid

But up thrust = weight of fluid displaced

= mg

U = ρvg

Example

A metal weights 20N in air and 15N when fully immersed in water. Calculate

a) Up thrust.
b) Weight of displaced water
c) Volume of displaced water (density = 1000kg/m2)
d) Volume of metal
e) Density of metal.

a) Up thrust = weight in air – weight in water

= 20N – 15N
= 5N
b) Weight of displaced water = up thrust
= 5N
c) Volume of displaced water
Upthrust = weight of displaced water
S = p x v xg
S = 1000 x v x 10
V=
V = 0.0005 m3

d) Volume of metal = volume of displaced water

= 0.0005m3

e) Density of metal =
=
= 4000kgm-3

45
Application of Archimedes’s principal

1. Measurement of relative density of solids

2. Measurement of relative density of a liquid

Measurement of relative density of a solid



 –

RD =

EXAMPLE

An object 5.6 N in air and 4.8N in water find its relative density

RD =

=7

An object of relative density 7 and 70N in air .what is its weight in water.

RD =

7 =

Ww = 60N

3. An object of relative density 9 weighs 40N in water find its weight in ai.
RD =

9=

Wa = 45N

46
Determination of RD of a liquid

 Let an object find its weight in air Wa using a spring balance

 Weigh the object in the liquid whose RD is to be determined, label in Wa
 Weigh the object in water, call it Ww
 Find the up thrust in liquid = Wa – Ww
 Find the up thrust in water = Wa – Ww
 Obtain RD of a liquid from RD =

RD =

Example

1. An object 5.6 in air, 4.8 in water and 4.6 when immersed in a liquid. Find the R.D of the air

RD =

2. An object weighs 100N in air and 20N in a liquid of RD 0.8. Find its weight in water.

RD =

0.8 =

Ww = 0N.

FLOATING OBJECTS

These are two vertical a forces which act on an object when immersed in water Ww and upthrust U

If W is lees than U, the object floats

If W is equal to upthrust U objects rise

If W is greater than upthrust U object sink

Therefore floating objects weigh equal to upthrust from Archimedes principal, upthrust is equal to
weight of a fluid displaced. Therefore for floating objects, weight of objects should be equal to weight of
fluid displaced.

Law of floatation

It states that a floating object displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats

Experiment to verify law of floatation

47
Method

- Weigh the object in air and note its weight Wa

- fill the overflow can until water just overflow from the spout
- Place an empty measuring cylinder under the spout after dropping of water has stopped.
- Gently lower the object into the overflow can collect the
Displaced water and weigh it.

It is found out that

Weight of water displaced = weight of object Wa

Application of law of floatation

1. Ship
A ship floats when the upthrust of the water it displaces equals its weight,
Weight of floating ship =weight of water displaced
While a ship is being loaded, it sinks lower and displaces more water to balance the extra load.
While steel does not float, steel ship floats this is because steel ship is hollow (i.e. consists of steel,
wood, and air) and its average density is less than the density of water. There fore hollow steel
displaces many times its volume of water.

2. Submarines
A submarine has ballast tanks which can be filled with water or air/ when full of water, the average
density average density of the submarine is slightly greater than the density of sea water and it
sinks

48
When air is pumped into the tanks, the average density of the submarine falls until it’s the same or
slightly less than that of water around it. The submarine therefore stays at one depth or rises to the
surface

Balloons and air ships

A balloon is an airtight, light bag with hydrogen or helium. These gases are less dense than air. An
airship is a large balloon with a motor to move it and fins to steer it.

The down ward force on the balloon equals to the weight of the bag plus the weight of gas in it.
The balloon rises if the upthrust is greater than the downward force
The lifting power= up thrust –total weight

= weight of air displaced –weight of ( bag + gas)

-balloons that carry passengers control their weight by dropping ballast to make them rise and by
letting gas out of the gas bag to make them fall. As the balloon rises, the atmospheric pressure on it
becomes less. The gas in the balloon tends to expand. Therefore the gas bag must not be filled
completely when the balloon is on the ground.

4. Hydrometers

A hydrometer is a floating object used to find the density of liquids by noting how far it sinks in them.

No weighing is necessary. It consists of a longer glass tube with a bulb at the bottom mercury or
lead is in the bulb so that the hydrometer floats up right. The stem is long and thin and is graduated.

49
 The thin stem means that the hydrometer is sensitive i.e. it sinks to different levels even in two
liquids whose densities are almost the same.

Uses of a hydrometer

It is used for measuring the densities of milk (lactometer) , beer, wines, acids in cars batteries(the
acid in a fully charged accumulator should have a density of 1.25g/cm3, if it falls below 1.18, the
accumulator needs recharging).

Experiment to measure density of a liquid using the hydrometer

 mark a simple hydrometer in cm beginning at the end that sinks

 place it in a tall jar of water. Mark the level to which it sinks
 measure the length that was in the water
 Remove the hydrometer, dry it and place it in a jar of another liquid. A gain measure the
depth to which it sinks

Obtain density of liquid =

Worked out examples

1. The mass of a piece o cork (0.25g/cm3) is 20g. What fraction of the cork is immersed when it
floats in water?

Solution

Mass of cork = mass of water displaced

=ρv

20 = 1 x v volume of water displaced =20cm3 =volume of cork immersed.

But volume of cork = = = 80 cm3

Fraction of cork immersed = = ¼

2. A solid of volume 1 x10m3 floats on water of density 1 x10 kgm-3 with of its volume submerged. Find
i) The mass of solid
ii) The density of solid
Solution
i) Mass of the solid = mass of liquid displaced
= vxp
= x10-4x 1x103
= 0.06kg
ii) Flotation of the body =
Immersed
= =

50
Density of the body =
= 600kgm3

3. A rubber balloon of mass 5 x 10-3kg is inflated with hydrogen and held stationary by means of a
string. If the volume of the inflated balloon is 5 x10-3, calculate the tension in the string (density of
hydrogen = 0.8m3) (density of air1.15kgm3)

Solution

Up thrust U = weight of fluid displaced

= ρa vg

=1.15 x 5x10 -3 x 10
= 0.0575N

Weight of balloon fabric = mg

= 5 x10-3 x10

= 0.05N

Weight of hydrogen = ρh v g = 0.08 x 5 x10 -3 x 10= 0.004N

Total weight of balloon W =0.05 + 0.004

= 0.54N

Tension T = U – W

= 0.0575 – 0.054

= 0.0035N

4. A body of mass 2kg is suspended from a spring which reads 17N when is completely
submerged in water,
i) What is the upthrust of the water in the body
ii) What is the mass of water displaced by the body
iii) If the density of water is 1000kg lm3, what is the volume of water displaced
iv) Calculate the density of the material of which the body is made.
v)
SOLUTION

Wa = mg

= 2 x 10 and U = Wa - Ww = 20 - 17
= 20N =3N
i) Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced
= 3N

51
 W = mg

3 = m x10 hence M= = 0.3 kg

ii) Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced

U=ρvg
3 = 1000 x v x 10
V=
= 3.0 x10-4m3

iii) Density =
=
= 6.7 x103 kg/m3

5. When a metal is completely immersed in liquid A its apparent weight is 5N. When immersed in
another liquid B the apparent weight is 16N if the density of B is times that of A calculate the
mass of the metal.

Solution

(i) Up thrust in A Up thrust in B

U 1 = W a – Ww U2 = Wa - Ww
U = (Wa – 20) = (Wa – 16)

Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced U = weight of fluid displaced

Wa – 20= pa x Vg …….. (i) Wa -16 = Pa Vg…………(ii)

Divide (i) by (ii)

= =

8(wa – 16) = 9(wa – 20)

Wa = 52N

Mass of solid = =

= 5.2kg

52
Motion of a body through fluids

When a body fall through a fluid its is acted on by forces namely

a) Weight of the body

b) Viscous force
c) Upthrust
The weight of the body acts downwards towards the earth. Upthrust acts upwards and viscous force
acts in the direction opposite to the motion.

(Viscous drag) fx u (upthrust)

Metal sphere fluid

W (weight)

As the body falls, it accelerates first with net resultant force

F= w – (fx+ u)

As the body continues to fall, it attains a uniform velocity called terminal velocity. When the weight of
the body w = fx + u
At this stage the resultant force or net force of the body is zero.

Terminal velocity

This is a constant or uniform velocity with which a body falling thru a fluid moves such that the upward
forces acting on it are equal to its weight
OR is the uniform velocity attained by a body falling thru a fluid when the net force on the body is 0.
Incase o a balloon or a rain drop falling, the resisting force or retarding force on the body is called air
resistance

53
 LIGHT

Light is a form of energy used in vision that enables us to see.

Sources of light

a) Luminous source of energy

Is that which produces its own light e.g. star, sun, bulb, candle etc.

b) Non luminous source of light is that which doesn’t produce its own light but can reflect from
luminous object e.g. mirrors moon car reflectors etc.

Transparent objects

These are objects which can allow light to pass through them. Driving windscreen of a car, ordinary glass,
pure water etc

Translucent objects

These are objects which allow little light to pass through them e.g. bathroom glass, tinted glass,
tracing paper e.t.c

Opaque objects

These are objects which don’t allow light to pass through them e.g. wood, concrete etc.

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

 It undergoes reflection
 It undergoes refraction
 It undergoes diffraction.
 It undergoes interference.
 Can be polarized
 Travels in a straight line
 It has a velocity of 3.0 x108 ms-1 in vacuum.
 Can travel through vacuum.

A ray: this is a path taken by light from an object to another. A ray is represented by a thin line with
an arrow to indicate the direction of light.

Beams of light: a beam is a collection of light rays moving in the same direction.

54
 TYPES OF BEAMS

i) Parallel beam

ii) Convergent beam.

Common point where rays meet.

Common point where

Rays originate from

RECTLINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

This is the phenomenon where by light travels in a straight line.

EFFECTS OF RECTLINEAR PROPAGATION

i) Formation of shadows
ii) Occurrence of eclipses

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT LIGHT TRAVELS IN ASTRAIGHT LINE

55
 PROCCEDURE

Three (3) identical card boards A, B and C each with a hole in its centre, are arranged with holes in
a straight line as shown above using a thread.

A source of light is placed behind cardboard A and an observer in front of C. The observer is able to
see the light from the source because light travels in a straight line.

If one of the holes is displaced out of the straight lines by adjusting one of the cardboards, light from
the source can’t reach the eyes of the observer.

This shows that light travels in a straight line.

SHADOWS

Shadows are formed when light rays are obstructed by an opaque object

FORMATION OF A SHADOW BY LIGHT FROM A POINT SOURCE

The shadow formed is completely dark with sharp edges and is called umbra.

Formation of a shadow by light from an extended source

The shadow has two parts

(i) umbra- it is the central part of the shadow. It is dark and receives no light.

(ii)Penumbra

It is the outer part of the shadow it is fairly dark. It receives light light from the source

56
ECLIPSE

An eclipse occurs when the sun, moon and earth are in a straight line. It is a natural effect of the
rectilinear propagation of light.

TYPES OF ECLIPSE

SOLAR ECLIPSE

It occurs when the moon is between the sun and the earth. It is also called eclipse of the sun. In this
eclipse there is total eclipse i.e. total darkness on the earth and partial eclipse where there is
little light on earth.

ILLUSTRATION

Region c represent total eclipse i.e. no light from the sun reaches the earth and the sun is not
visible.

Regions b and d represent partial eclipse i.e. little light reaches the earth and part of the sun is
visible. There is partial darkness,

In Regions a and e no eclipse occurs.

A NNULAR ECLIPSE

This is a solar eclipse where the shadow of the moon fails to reach the earth. The sun appears as
an annulus.

57
LUNAR ECLIPSE (ECLIPSE OF THE MOON)

This occurs when the earth is between the sun and the moon. It takes place at night, as the moon
rotates about the earth, along it’s orbit. if m1 m2 and m3 are different positions of the moon, then
during lunar eclipse, no eclipse occurs in position m3, i.e moon is fully visible. In position m2
partial eclipse occurs. i.e. only part of the moon is visible.

But the moon is visible with a copper like colour due to some light refracted by the earth at position
m1

THE PIN – HOLE CAMERA

This is a box or tin with a black and roughened internal surface and a screen opposite the face with
a small hole. It works on the principle of rectilinear propagation of light.

N.B: the internal surface is made black by painting it and roughened so as to prevent reflection
of stray light in box.

Light from object enters the pinhole camera through a small hole forming an inverted image.

Nature of the image formed in the pin-hole camera.

1. It is real
2. It is inverted

58
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE OF THE IMAGE

i) Distance between the object and the hole or camera.

The image size increases as the distance from the hole decreases and vice verse.

ii) Distance between the hole and screen.

The image size increases i.e. magnified as the distance increases or the image size diminishes
as the distance decreases.

EFFECTS OF SEVERAL HOLES OR ENLARGING THE PINHOLE

The image becomes blurred (not sharp) and brighter because more light is admitted into the pinhole
camera. It has no effect on the size of the image.

MAGINIFICATION

This is the ratio of image size to object size

M= =

Note

B1

ho h1

A1

u v

For 1 = 2 (vertically opposite)

By Proportionality

= =M

Where V – Image distance from pin hole to screen

Object distance from pinhole to object.

59
Example

An object 20cm high forms an image on a screen of the pin hole camera. If the distance between
the object and screen is 24cm and the distance between the object and the pin hole is 6cm find

i) The magnification of the image

ii) The size of the image.

i) H1 = 2cm , u = 6cm v = 24cm

Magnification M= = =4

ii) M= =4= = h1 = (4 x2) = 8 cm

REFLECTION OF LIGHT ON A PLANE SURFACE

It is the bouncing of light from a shiny smooth surface.

TYPES OF REFLECTION

There are two types of reflection

i) Regular reflection
ii) Diffuse / irregular reflection.

Regular reflection

Regular reflection is the type of reflection in which a parallel beam of light is incident on a smooth
surface is reflected as a parallel beam.

The angles of incidence are equal all rays

Diffuse reflection

This is a type of reflection in which a parallel beam of light incident on a rough surface is reflected
as a scattered beam. Angle of incidence are different from the angles of reflection.

60
 Application of diffuse reflection

 Ability to see many objects at the same time

 Ability to read a book.

TERMS USED IN REFLCTION OF LIGHT

A N B

i r

Reflecting surface O

i) Point 0 (point of incidence )

This is the point on the reflecting surface where the incident ray is directed.
ii) Normal (0N)
Is a line drawn from point 0 perpendicular to the reflecting surface?
iii) Incident ray (A0)
Is the path along which light is directed on to the reflecting surface?
iv) Angle of incidence (i)
This is the angle that the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence.
v) Reflected (0B)
Is the path along which light incident on a surface is reflected
vi) Angle of reflection ( r)
This is an angle between the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence.

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LAW OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT

There are two laws

1. The incident ray, the normal and reflected ray at the point of incidence all lie on the plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY LAWS OF REFLECTION

 Put the white piece of paper on the soft board using pins.
 Draw lines AB and ON perpendicular to each other on white sheet of paper.
 Measure angle of incidence equal to 30o at point O and draw line IO
 Fix things p1 and p2 vertically along line IO.
 Insert a plain mirror along AB with the reflecting surface facing you.
 Looking through the plain mirror, fix pins p3 and p4 such that they appear to be in line with
images of p1 and p2.
 Measure the angle of refection using a protractor
 The procedure above is repeated for angles of incidence 450 and 400
 It is observed that angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection, this proof the second law.
 Also since lines I0 (incident ray), 0N (Normal line) and OR (reflected ray) is drawn on the same
sheet of paper and they meet at the same point, this proofs the first law.
 Thus the above experiment varies the laws of reflection

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NATURE OF IMAGE FORMED ON PLAIN MIRROR.

 The image formed is of the same size as the object

 The image distance from the mirror is equal to the object distance from the mirror
 The image lateral inverted.

 It is virtual i.e. can’t be found on the screen.

IMAGE FORMATION IN A PLANE MIRROR

 Note: the line joining any point on the object to its corresponding point on the image cuts the
mirror at 900
 Distance OM = distance MI

63
 Image formed in two plane mirrors inclined at 900

When two mirrors are inclined at 900 to each other, two images I1 and I2 are formed by a single
reflection in mirrors 1 and 2 respectively. In addition an extra image is formed when image I1
acts as an object in mirror 2 to form image I1,2 as shown in the diagram above.

c) Image formed in parallel mirrors

An infinity number of images are formed when an object is placed between two parallel mirrors. Each
image seen in one mirror will acts as virtual object to the next (opposite) mirror.

 The object 0 gives rise to image I1, in mirror m1 and I2 in mirror m2.
 Image I1 acts as a virtual a object to give an image I(1,2) in mirror m2 just as I2 gives an image
I(2,1) in mirror m1
 Image. I(1,2) acts as a virtual object to give an image I(1,2,1) after reflection in m1 while image
I(2,1) gives an image I (2,1,2) after reflecting in Mirror m2.
 The above process goes on for each new image formed thus obtaining an infinity number of
images.

64
 Image formed by an inclined mirror at an angle θ

When two mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle θ between them, the number of images in
the mirrors is obtained using the formula below;

N=( 1)

The table below summarizes how one can obtain the number of image formed by 2 mirrors
inclined at an angle.

Angle between mirrors θ/o Number of image in ( n ) = =

90 3 4 3

60 5 6 6

45 7 8 7

30 11 12 11

15 23 24 23

0 Infinity Infinity Infinity

Questions

1. Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle 500 to one another find the number of images formed by
these mirrors.
2. Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle θ to each other. If the number of image formed between
them is 79o, find the angle of inclination θ.
solutions
1. N = ( 1)

N=( ) = 7.2 -1= 6.2 images.

2. N =

79 =

θ = 4.5o

65
 ROTATION OF REFLECTED RAY

When a mirror is rotated through an angle , the reflected ray will rotate through an angle 2θ
provided the direction of the incident ray remains the same .

e.g. the angle between a fixed ray of light and a mirror is 25 0, if the mirror rotates through 20o. Find
by how many degrees do a reflected ray rotates.

Required angle = 2θ = 2 x 20 = 400

N.B the angle through which the reflected ray is rotated does not depend on the angle of incidence
but depends on the angle of rotation on the reflecting surface.

Questions

An incident may make an angle of 200 with the plane mirror in position m1 as shown in the diagram

a) What will the angle of reflection be if the mirror is rotated through 60 to position m2 while direction
of incident ray remains the same?
b) An object is placed 6cm from a plane mirror. If the object is moved further, find the distance
between the object and its image.

66
 Application of reflections

 Periscope

This is the instrument used for looking over obstacles. It is made of two (2) plane mirrors inclined at
450 when they are facing each other. It is used in submarines, war tankers e.t.c.

REFLECTION BY CURVED MIRRORS

There are two types of curved mirrors

i) Concave / converging mirror (curve inwards)
ii) Convex (diverging mirror (curve outwards)

CONCAVE MIRRORS

A concave mirror is one with the reflecting/slivery surface on the inner side of the mirror. A concave
mirror is also called a converging mirror because it converges parallel rays to a point called
principal focus.

A concave mirror has a real principal focus because light actually pass through it as they converge
after reflection.

67
 P - Pole of mirror

F - Principal focus

C - Center of curvature

R - Radius of curvature

F - Focal length

CONVEX MIRRORS

A convex mirror is one with the reflecting/slivery surface on the outer side of the mirror. A convex
mirror is also called a diverging mirror because it diverges parallel rays to appear like they are
diverging from point called principal focus.

A convex mirror has a virtual principal focus because light appear diverge, originate or come from it
after reflection.

Terms used

 The pole (P) : is the center of reflecting surface

 Center of curvature(C) .it is the center of sphere of which the mirror formed part of.
 Principal axis: is the imaginary line that passes through the pole, principal focus and the
center of curvature of the mirror.
 Radius of curvature (r): this is the radius of sphere of which the mirror formed part of.
OR: it is the distance between the pole of the mirror and its center curvature

68
  Focal length (f) : this is the distance from the pole of the mirror to the principal focus.
i.e.

 Aperture. This is the width of the mirror.

 Principal focus / focal point(f):

a) For a concave mirror.
It’s a point on the principal axis where all incident rays parallel and close to the principal axis will
converge to after reflection.
b) For a convex mirror.
It’s a point on the principal axis where all incident rays parallel and close to the principal axis
appear to diverge from after reflection.

Note: F is real for a concave mirror and virtual for a convex mirror.

 Real image: Is one which can be formed on the screen. It is formed by actual intersection of rays.
 Virtual images: it is one which cannot be formed on the screen. It is formed by apparent inter
section of rays.

CONSTRUCTION OF RAY DIAGRAMS

Ray diagrams can be used to explain how and where a curved mirror forms images. The rays are drawn
using any two of the following 3 principal.

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected through the principal focus.
a) For a concave mirror

b) For a convex mirror

69
 2. A ray through the principal focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis .

a) For a concave mirror

b) For a convex mirror

3. A ray through the center of curvature is reflected along the same path.
a) For a concave mirror

b) For a convex mirror

70
Image formation by concave mirror

The type, size and position of the image formed by a concave mirror depends centrally on the
distance of the object from the mirror.

1. Object 0 beyond C

2. Objects 0 at C

2. Object 0 between C and F

3. Object 0 at F

71
4. Object 0 between F and P

Image formation by convex mirror

No matter the position of the object from the convex mirror, the image formed is always virtual,
diminished and upright.

Image formed is virtual, diminished,

Upright (erect) and formed between F and P.

Construction of ray diagrams to scale.

Example
1. An object 4cm high is placed 30cm from a concave mirror of focal length 10cm. by
construction, find the position nature and size of the image
2. An object 3cm high is placed at angles to principal axis a concave mirror with focal length
7.5cm. if the object is 30cm from the pole, construct a ray diagram to obtain the position
size and nature of image (use a scale 1cm : 3cm)

Graph

72
 Questions

1. An object 4cm high is placed 2.4cm from concave mirror of focal length 8cm. draw a ray
diagram to find the position size and nature of image. Scale 1cm = 2cm

2. An object of height 10cm is placed at a distance 60cm from a convex mirror of focal length
20cm. by scale find the image position, height, nature and magnification (scale 1cm : 5cm)

MAGNIFICATION

This is the ratio of image height to the object height.

M= where h1 – image height, ho – object height

OR

This is the ratio of image distance from distance from the mirror to the object distance from the
mirror.

M= where v – image distance, u – object distance

Example 1

An object 10cm high is placed at distance of 20cm from a convex mirror of focal length 10cm

i) Draw a ray diagram, locate the position of the image

ii) Calculate the magnification (1cm :5cm)

73
 USES OF CURVED MIRRORS
a) Convex mirrors
They are used as driving mirror because
i) They give a wide field of view
ii) They give upright images of the object
Disadvantages
 It gives a false impression of the distance of an object
 The object is diminished.

b) Concave mirror
 Used in head lamps , torches , parabolic mirrors

 It can be used as sharing mirror

 Used by dentists for magnification
 Can be used in astronomical telescope (reflecting type)
 Can be used as solar concentrators.

MEASURING FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR

METHOD 1: Distant object method(rough method)

 Hold a concave mirror at one end focusing t he distant object.

 Hold a white screen in front of the mirror so that it receives rays reflected from it to reach the
mirror from the object.

74
  Move the screen at different distances from the mirror until a sharp image is formed on the
screen
 Measure the distance from the screen to the mirror with a metre rule.
 Repeat the experiment several times and find the average value of the distance between the
screen and the mirror. This is the focal length (f) of the mirror

METHOD 2 : using illuminated object at c

- With the mirror facing illuminated object, adjust the distance between them until a sharp image is
formed on the screen alongside the object.
- Measure the distance between the object and the mirror
- Repeat the experiment for several attempts and find the average value. This is the radius of a
curvature so the focal length (f) is obtained from r =2f.

MIRROR FOMULA METHOD.

- Two pins are required, one acts as an object pin and the other as a search pin.
- The object pin is placed in front of the mirror between F and C so that a magnified real image
 is formed beyond C.
 The search pin is then placed so that there is no parallax between it and the real image as
shown in figure above.
 The distance of the object pin from the mirror, u and that of the search pin, v is measured.

75
  Several pairs of object and image distances are obtained in this way and the results in a
suitable table including , , and
 A mean for focal length f is obtained from the mirror formula
o f=

REFRACTION

This is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another of different optical densities.

P Q

PQ – Interface

O -- Point of incidence

OB – Refracted ray

AO – Incident ray

i-Angle of incidence

r- Angle of refraction

NN’ – Normal

REFRACTION can also be defined as the change in speed of light when it moves from one medium
to another of different optical densities.

N.B

When a ray of light enters an optically denser medium, it is bent towards the normal and when it
enters a less dense medium it is bent away from the normal.

76
 LAWS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal ray at the point of incidence all lie on the same
plane.
2. The ratio sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant (snell’s law) for any
given pair of media
i.e. = = constant (n) where n – refracted index of the medium containing the refracted ray.

Refractive index
It is the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction for a ray of light moving from
one medium to another of different of different optical densities.

Example

1. A glass material has a refractive index n= 1.5 .find the angle of refraction, if the ray of light moves
from air to glass as shown below.

77
Refractive index n =

1.50 =
Sin r =

r = sin-1[ =

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY SNELL’S LAW

A glass block is placed on a white sheet of paper and its outline ABCD drawn as shown below.

- The glass block is then removed using a protractor; the normal is drawn at a point to 0
along AB and an angle of incidence i measured.
- Pins P1 and P2 are fixed on the line making an angle of I to the normal and the glass block
replaced on its outline ABCD.
- While looking through side CD, two other pins p3 and p4 are fixed so as to appear in lines of
images p1 and p2.
- The glass block, pins p3 and p4 are removed and a line drawn through points where p3 and
p4 were fixed. This line is called the emergent ray. It is drawn through 0 to meet CD at E.
- Point 0 is joined to E. The line is called the refracted ray.
- The angle of refraction r is measured.
- The experiment is repeated using other angles of incident 20, 30, 40, and 50.
- The values of i, r are tabulated as shown.

i/0 r/0 Sin i Sin r

10
20
30
40
50

A graph of sin i against sin r is plotted. A straight line graph through the origin verifies Snell’s law.

78
NB: The slope of the graph gives the refractive index of the glass

Slope n =

Absolute refractive index

Is the ratio of sine of angle of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction for a ray of light
moving from air (vacuum) to another medium of different optical density.

n= the angle incident i should in air or vacuum.

REFRACTION ON PLANE PARALLEL BOUNDARIES

The refractive index of n of the medium is denoted by 1n2 for a ray of light moving from medium 1 to
medium 2.The refractive index of a ray of light moving from glass to water is written as g w =
where ng and nw are absolute refractive indices of glass and water respectively. So 1n2 =

= n1sin i = n2 sin r

Principal of reversibility of light

It states that when the direction of ray of light is reversed, it follows exactly the same path as before.

a g (i)

g a= (ii)

a g= or g a =

Question

79
Figure above shows a glass slab of uniform thickness, lying horizontally. Above it is a layer of water.
A ray of light PQ is incident upwards on a lower surface of the glass and is refracted
successively at A, B and C, the points where it crosses the interfaces. Calculate

(i) angle x,

(ii) angle y, and

(iii) the refractive index for light passing from the water to glass. (Refractive indices of glass and
water are 3/2 and 4/3 respectively.)

EFFECTS OF REFRACTION ON PLANE SURFACES

Refraction on plane surface causes

- a partially immersed stick in water at an angle to appear bent at the boundary between
air and water.
- A stick placed upright in water appears shorter
- A swimming pool or well or pond appears shallower than it’s actual size

- An object placed under the glass block appears nearer

Explanation of the effects of refraction

Rays of light from point B on the stick move from water to air i.e. from a dense medium to a less
dense medium. On reaching the surface of water, they are bent away from the normal. On

80
 entering the eye of the observer, rays appear to come from point C which is the image of B on
the object.

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

An object 0 placed below a water surface appears to nearer to the top when viewed from above .
the depth corresponding to apparent depth

The actual depth of an object, below the liquid surface is called the real depth.

Relationship between real apparent depth and refractive index

Refractive index n =

Using the principal of reversibility of light sin i = , sin r =

n=

= X n=
if B is close to A, BO =A0 and BI = AI
n= but A0 is the real depth

81
AI is the apparent depth
Hence n =

Examples

1. A swimming pool appears to be only 1.5m deep. If the refractive index of water is 4/3 calculate the
real depth of water in the pool.

n=

4 /3 = r= = 2.0m

2. A coin is placed at the bottom of the beaker which contains water at a depth of 8cm. how much
does the coin viewed from above appears to be raised ( take n to be 4/3 )

Question

1. A pin at the bottom of the beaker containing a transparent liquid at a depth of 24cm is apparently
displaced by 6cm. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.

Determination of refractive index by real and apparent depth method

A glass block placed vertically over a cross (x) drawn on a white sheet of paper as shown above.

A pin is clamped on a sliding cork adjacent the block, it is moved up and down until there is no
parallax between it and the image of the cross (x) seen through the block.

The real depth and apparent depth x are measured and the refractive index is then calculated from

82
n=

Determination of refractive index using a triangular prism

A prism is placed on a white sheet of paper and it’s outline drawn as shown below.

Two object pins p1and p2 are fixed upright on side AC and while looking through the prism for side
AB, two other pins p3 and p4 are fixed such that they appear to be in line with images of P1 and
P2, the prism is removed, a line drawn through P1 and P2 another drawn through P3 and P4.

Points M and N are joined by a straight line and normal ST drawn at a point M as shown. Angle i
and r are measured

The procedure is replaced to obtain different values of i and r and the results tabulated as shown.

i/0 r/0 Sin i Sin r

- - -
- - -
- - -

A graph of sin i against sin r is plotted. The slope of the graph is the refractive index of the prism.

DEVIATION THROUGH PRISMS

A mono chromatic light incident on a prism changes its direction (deviates) as it is entering the prism
as shown.

83
Deviation on face AB, d1= i1-r1

Deviation on BC, d2 = i2-r2

Total deviation d = d1 +d2= i1 –r1 + (i2 –r2)

= (i, +i2)- (r1+r2)

But A = r1 +r2

Hence deviation d = (i1 +i2) +A

EXAMPLE 1

A prism of refractive 1.5 and refractive angle 600 has an angle of refraction of 280 on the 1st face.
Determine

a) angle of incidence i
b) angle of refraction on 2nd face r2
c) angle of emergency i2
d) angle of deviation d
Solutions
a) = sin i = sin r

1 x sin i = sin1.5 sin 28

i = sin-1 (1.5 sin 28)= 44.70

b) A = r1 +r2
60 = 28 +r2
r2 =60 -28
r2 = 320

c) Applying Snell’s law on face 2

sin r = sin i2
1.5 sin 32= 1xsin i2
i2= sin-1(1.5 sin 32)
i2 = 52.640

d) d = d1 + d2
= (i1+i2) –A
=(44.7+52.64)-60
= 37.340

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

84
This is the phenomenon by which all light travelling from an optically dense medium to a less dense
medium is reflected back in the dense medium, when the angle of incidence in the dense
medium is greater than the critical angle.

Conditions for total internal refraction to occur

Light should travel from an optically dense medium to a less dense medium

The angle of incidence in the dense medium should be greater than the critical angle.

How does total internal reflection arise?

Consider a ray of light in the dense medium for which the angle of incidence is less than the critical
angle , the ray produces a weak reflected ray and a strong reflected ray as shown in (i)

When the angle of incidence is increased to a critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90 0

Critical angle c: this is the angle of incidence in a more optically dense medium for which the angle
of reflection is 900

When the angle of incidence is increased beyond the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs as
shown below in (ii)

85
Relationship between Refractive index and critical angle.

Applying Snell’s law at the interface,

ng sin c = na sin 90 =1

ng =

Example:

1. Find the critical angle of a medium of reflective index 1.5

Sin C = C =sin-1( ) = sin-1( = 41.80

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

In reflecting prisms which are in binoculars, periscopes and cameras e.g i) Turning a ray through
900

Prism periscope

86
 ii) Turning a ray through 1800

iii) Turning a ray through 3600

Optical light pipes

The inner surface has slightly higher refractive index than the outer surface making it slightly denser
medium. Light can be trapped by total internal reflection inside a bent glass rod and piped along
a curved path as shown above.

Optical fibres can be used by doctors and engineers to light up some awkward spot for inspection.
Modern telephone cables are optical fibres using laser light.

EFFECTS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

87
The mirage

This can happen when the air nearer the surface of the ground is less dense than the above. Cool
air is dense than warm air.

Light from the sky is gradually refracted away from the normal as it passes from denser layer of air
to less dense layers

When light meets a layer at angles of incidences greater than the critical angle, it suffers total
internal reflection.

The reflection of the sky forms an image which appears as a pool of water on the road.

Fish’s eye view

 A fish in water can have a water field of view as it can see an object normally at A
 If angle i is less than the critical angle, it can see an object B by reflection.

It can also see an object as the bank C of lake if the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle.

And if i is greater than the critical angle an object at D can be seen by total internal reflection.

88
 LENSES (Refraction on circular surfaces)

These are two types:

(i) Convex/converging lenses

(ii) Concave/diverging lenses

Convex lens

Concave lens

Terms used:

89
1. Principal axis is a line joining the principal focus and the optical Centre.
2. Principal focus of a convex lens is a point on the principal axis to which all rays originally
parallel and close to the principal axis converge after refraction by the lens.
3. Principal focus of a concave lens: This is appoint on the principal axis to which all rays
originally parallel and close to the principal axis appear to diverge after refraction.
4. Focal length: This is the distance between the principal focus and the optical centre.
5. Optical centre: this is the centre of the lens at which rays pass un deviated.

CONSTRUCTION OF RAY DIAGRAM

In constructing ray diagram, 2 of the 3 principal rules are used.
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the focal point.

2. A ray through the optical centre passes un deviated i.e. i s not refracted.

3. A ray through the principal focus emerge parallel to the principal axis after refraction.

Images formed by convex lenses:

The nature of the image formed in a convex lens depends on the position of the object from the
lens.

90
(a) Object beyond 2f

(b) Object at 2f

C) Object between f and 2f

(c) Object at f

(d) Object between F and C

91
When the object is placed between f and c, the image is magnified and this is why the convex is
known as a magnifying glass.

Image Formation in a Concave Lens

Power of a lens

It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length in metes

Power of lens = in meters where f – length.

S.I units of power of the lens is dioptres (D)

Example

1. Calculate the power of the focal length 10cm.

P= =
= 10D
2. Find the power of the lens whose focal length is 20cm
P= =
= 50
OR
F = 20cm = = 0.2m

Magnification of the lens

It is defined as the ratio of the image height to object height.

M=

OR

It is the ratio of image distance to object distance from the lens

M = where –v – image distance

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 U – Object distance

Determination of image position by graphical method

Same rules are used.

1. A lens is represented by a line on a graph paper. Scale must be used.

E.g. object 5cm tall is placed 15 cm away from a lens of focal length 10cm by construction.

Determine the position size and nature of the final image (use a scale 1:5cm)

Question

1. A simple magnifying glass of focal length 5cm forms an erect image of the object 25cm from the
lens. By graphical method, find the distance between the object and image

Calculate the magnification.

Diag

2. An erect object 5cm high is placed at a point 25cm from a convex lens. A real image of the object
is formed 25 cm high.

Construct a ray diagram and use it to find the focal length of the lens

3. An object is placed at right angle to the principal axis of the thin covering lens of focal length 10cm.
a real image of height 5cm is formed at 30cm on a lens . by construction, find the position and
height of the object (use 1cm :5cm)

93
Determination of focal lens of a convex lens
a) Method 1 rough method
Procedure
A converging lens with a screen on one side is placed some distance from the distant object
e.g. a window as shown.

f – focal length
The screen is moved away or towards the lens until the sharp of the window is formed on the
screen.
The distance between the lens and the screen is measured and this is its focal length f.
N.B – the value of f obtain by above method is …because rays of light from the window are
assumed to be parallel may not be perfectly parallel.

b) Determination of focal length using on illuminated object.

Procedure
 A lens is set up in a suitable holder with a plane mirror behind it so that light passing through
the lens is reflected back as shown above
 Across wire is used as the object in a hole of a white screen. It is illuminated by the bulb
 The position of the lens is adjusted until a sharp image of the object is formed on the screen
along side the object.
 The distance between the lens and the screen is measured, this gives the focal length of the
lens .

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 Application of lenses

Lenses are used in

 Lens camera
 Slide projectors
 Spectacles (used by people with eye defects)
 Microscopes and telescopes.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
1. The lens camera
This is an optical instrument like the eye, light enters the camera through the convex lens which
focuses light onto the film
The film contains a chemical that changes behavior on exposure light.
It is developed to give a negative from which a photograph is made by printing.

The camera is focused by varying the distance between the lens and the film. The lens is mounted
on a screw thread so that, it can be moved in and out for near objects, the lens is moved away
from the film.
The amount of light entering the camera is controlled by the
1) shutter, which opens for a certain length of the time to expose the film to the light
2. Aperture (hole ) through which light enters the camera by varying its size
3. Diaphragm, this changes the size of the aperture. a stope is made of a sense of metal
plates which can be moved to increase the aperture size

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THE EYE

Functions of the parts of the eye .

1. Lens
The lens inside the eye is convex . it’s sharp , it changes in order to focus light.
2. Ciliary muscle
These alter the focal length of lens by changing its shape so that the eye can focus on image
on the retina.
3. The iris
This is the coloured position of the eye. It controls the amount of light entering the eye by
regulating the size of the pupil
4. The retina
This is a light sensitive layer at the back of the eye where the image is formed.
5. The optic nerve
It is the nerve that transmits the image on the retina to the brain for interpretation.
6. The cornea
It is the protective layer and it also partly focuses light entering the eye

Accommodation
This is the process by which the human eye changes its size so as to focus the image on the
retina. This process makes the eye to see both near and far objects.
EYE DEFECTS AND THEIR CORRECTIONS

The normal eye can see objects clearly placed at infinity ( far point) to see objects in greater details
the eye sees it at the near point i.e 25cm

TYPES OF EYE DEFECTS

a) Short sightedness
b) Long sightedness

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SHORT SIGHTEDNESS
A person with short sightedness can see near objects clearly but distant objects are blurred. The
furthest point at which one can see the objects clearly is the far point. An object which is further
than the far point is focused in front of the retina.

Correction of shortsightedness

A concave lens is placed in front of the eye to make the light diverge so that it appears to come
from the near point when its actually coming far away as shown above.

LONGSIGHTEDNESS
A long sighted person can see distant objects clearly but those that are near are blurred. The
nearest point at which the person can see an object clearly is called near point . an object
placed near than the near point is focused behind the retina as shown below.

Correction of long sightedness

A convex lens is placed in front of the eye to make the light parallel, so that it appears to come from
a distant object as shown above.

Similarities and differences between the eye and camera

Similarities
 The camera consists of the (a) light proof box painted blck inside the eye it is fitted with a
black pigment in to it to prevent stray reflection of light
 Both have converging lens that focus light from the external objects
 Both have light sensitive parts, the camera has a film while the eye has a retina.
 Both have a system that controls the amount of light entering them

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  In the eye, iris is responsible and diaphragm does the same function in the camera.

Differences
 The eye lens is a biological organ while that of a camera is made out of glass.
 The distance between the eye lens and the retina is fixed while that between the camera
lens and the film can be varied.
 The eye focuses image by changing the shape of the lens , in a camera the image is
focused by changing the distance between the lens and the film.

THE SLIDE PROJECTOR

Functions of the parts of the slide projection

1. Lamp – it gives small but very high intensity source of light. It is suitable at the center of
curvature of a convex mirror.
2. Concave mirror- it is placed behind the light source. It reflects all lights forward.
3. Condenser lens – it converges light through the slide on to the projector lens
4. Convex projector lens – it focuses the image of the slide on the screen
5. The fan- cools the light source once a lot of heat is produced
6. Heat shield – it shield the slide from heat produced by the light source
7. The slide – this is where the object is placed
8. Screen – this is where the object is formed . the size of the image on the screen increases as
the projector is moved back from it. Th image is focused by altering the distance between the
slide and the lens . the projector lens is mounted on the screw thread so that it can be moved in
and out to focus the image.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT
This is the separation of white light into various colours listed in order. The colours are red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. The bundle of colour formed is called a spectrum. Visible
light spectrum can be made by passing a beam of white light through a glass prism.

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Dispersion occurs because each colour is refracted in glass by different amount i.e. each colour
has different refractive index. So red is refracted least and violet is refracted most.

HOW TO OBTAIN A PURE SPECTRUM

The spectrum obtained above is impure i.e. the colours of the spectrum overlap one another.

Apure spectrum is one in which light of one colour only forms each part of the image on the screen
without overlap. This can be achieved by playing a convex lens in front of the prism to increase
on the deviation of the colours as they pass through the prism.

Lens L produces parallel beam of white light. The light is then dispersed and deviated at the prism
sprinting up into various colours.

Lens B collects the different coloured lines so that the parallel beam of each separate colour is
focused on the screen.

RECOMBINATION OF THE SPECTRUM:

The colours of the spectrum can be recombined by;

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 (i) Arranging a second prism so that the light is deviated in the opposite direction/****/.

(ii) Using an electric motor to rotate at high speed, a disc with spectral colours from its sectors
as shown below.

The whiteness is slightly grey because paints are not pure colours.

Colours of objectives:

The colour of an object depends on;

(i) The colour of light falling on it.

(ii) The colour it transmits or reflects eg an object appears blue because it reflects blue light
into the eyes and absorbs the other colours of the spectrum. Similarly, an object appears
red because it reflects light into the eyes and reflects all other colours.
(iii) A white object reflects all the colours of the spectrum into the eyes and absorbs none.

A body appears white because it absorbs all colours and reflects none.

Types of colours:

a) Primary colours
These are colours that can’t be obtained by adding two different colours of light. they include red ,
blue and green
b) Secondary colour
These are colours which are obtained by adding 2 primary colours together. They include yellow,
peacock blue and magenta.

NB :- peacock blue is times called cyan or tachois.

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c) Complementally colours
There are two different colours which when added produce white light. One of them is a secondary
colour and the other must be a primary colour. The pairs are
Red + peacock blue white light
Green + magenta white light
Blue + yellow white light
Complementally colours

From the complementally colours it is noted that when the three primary colours are joined, they
produce white light.

SUMMARY OF COLOURED LIGHTS

Coloured objects in white light

A coloured object reflects and transmits its own colour and absorbs other colour incident on it.
Examples:

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N.B:- primary colour +primary colour = black
Primary colour + secondary colour = primary
Secondary colour + secondary colour = common primary colour.
Question
Describe and explain the appearance of a red tie with blue spots when observed in .
a) Red light
b) Green light – the whole tie appears because both colours are primary colours and
non is reflected black
c) Red light – in the red light the tie appears red and blue spots blacks.
This is because the red reflects the red colour and observes blue colour.

Question2

A plant with green leaves and red flowers is placed in

a) green
b) blue
c) Yellow
what colour will the leaves and flowers appear in each case . Assume all colours are pure

a) green -: the leaves remain green but the flower black

b) blue -: the leaves will appear black and flowers black

c) Yellow -: the leaves appear green and flowers appear red.

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 FILTERS (COLOUR)
A filter is a coloured sheet of plastic or glass material which allows light of its own type to pass
through it and absorbs the rest of the coloured lights i.e. a green filter transmits only green,
a blue transmits only blue , a yellow filter transmits red , green and yellow lights.

MIXING OF COLOURED PIGMENTS

A pigment is a substance which gives its colour to another substance .A pigment absorbs all
the colours except its own which it reflects . When pigments are mixed the colour reflected
is the common to all e.g. blue + yellow green
Yellow + orange black
Green + indigo blue
The blue reflects indigo and green its neighbour in the spectrum as well as blue
Yellow reflects green, yellow and orange only green is reflected by both
Mixing coloured pigment is called colour mixing by subtraction
Pigments appears black because non of the colours are reflected.

APPEARANCE OF COLOUR PIGMENT IN THE WHITE LIGHT .

A colour pigments reflects only one colour .

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 APPEARANCE A COLOUR PIGMENT IN COLOURED LIGHT

(a.) Magenta pigment reflects two colours of light i.e. blue and red when white light
is incident on it

(b.) Red pigment reflects only the red colour when magenta light is incident on it.

(c.) The pigment appears black because none of the colours in the magenta light is
reflected.

 Used in pointers to prevent errors due to parallax.

 Used in optical lever instruments to magnify angle of rotation.
 Used in kaleidoscope.
 Used in small shops and supermarkets, take away and saloons to give a false magnification as
a result of multiple reflections.

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