Tool Engineering

Chapter No:- 3

Geometry and
nomenclature of
cutting tool

[Prof. S. S. Pathak Chapter No 3 Geometry & Nomenclature of cutting tool] Page 1

 Tool Engineering

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

GEOMETRY AND NOMENCLATURE-

Three views of single point cutting tool-

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Nomenclature-
A. General terms-
1. Shank- It is the main body of the tool.
2. Flank- The surface or surfaces below and adjacent to the cutting edge is
called flank of the tool.
3. Face- The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
4. Heel- The intersection of the flank and the base of the tool is called heel
of the tool.
5. Nose- The point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge
intersects is called nose of the tool.
6. Cutting edge- The edge which removes the material from the work piece
is called cutting edge.

Total cutting edge= Major/side cutting edge + Minor/End cutting

edge + Nose

B. Types of cutting tool as per cutting side-

1. Right hand tool- After keeping right hand on the tool, palm facing
downward and fingers pointing nose, if thumb denotes side cutting edge
the tool is known as right hand tool.

Tool takes cut when fed from right to left

2. Left hand tool- After keeping left hand on the tool, palm facing
downward and fingers pointing nose, if thumb denotes side cutting edge
the tool is known as left hand tool.

Tool takes cut when fed from left to right

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C. Various Planes and surfaces in metal cutting operation-

The various types of surfaces and planes in metal cutting are explained
below with the help of Fig., in which the basic turning process is shown.
The three types of surfaces are:
1. The work surface, from which the material is cut.
2. The machined surface which is formed or generated after removing the
chip.
3. The cutting surface which is formed by the side cutting edge of the tool.
The references from which tool angles are specified are the cutting plane
and basic plane or the principle plane.
Cutting plane is the plane tangent to the cutting surface and containing the
side cutting edge.
Basic plane is the plane parallel to the longitudinal and cross feeds, that is,
this plane lies along and normal to the longitudinal axis of the work piece.
In a lathe tool the basic plane coincides with the base of the tool.

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D. Systems used for tool designations-

1. American standards Association System (ASA)-
This system is also called as Machine Reference System (MRS)
or American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
In this system, the angles of tool face i.e. its slope are defined in
two orthogonal planes, one parallel to and the other perpendicular
to the axis of the cutting tool, both planes being perpendicular to
the base of the tool.

Fig. - Right hand single point cutting tool terminology

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Angles used for designations-

1. Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA)- shown by Cs
The angle between side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank is
called as side cutting edge angle.
This angle is also called as Lead angle.
Approach angle is the complimentary angle of SCEA.
2. End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA)-
The angle between end cutting edge and a line normal to the tool shank is
called as end cutting edge angle.
3. Side Relief Angle (SRA)-
The angle between portions of side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of tool measured at right
angle to the side flank is called as side relief angle.
4. End Relief Angle (ERA) - The angle between the portion of end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the
base of the tool and measured at right angle to the end flank is called as
end relief angle.
5. Back Rake Angle (BRA) – The angle between the face of the tool and a
line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a perpendicular plane
passing through the side cutting edge is called back rake angle.

This angle gives the slope of the face from nose towards the shank.

If side cutting edge sloping downward towards the shank, this angle is
positive.
If side cutting edge sloping in reverses direction towards shank, this angle
is negative.
6. Side Rake Angle (SRA) – The angle between tool face and a line parallel
to the base of the tool and measured in a perpendicular plane to the base
and the side cutting edge.

This angle gives the slope of face from the cutting edge.

If the slope is away from the cutting edge, the angle is positive.
If the slope is towards the cutting edge, the angle is negative.
7. Nose Radius- The radius provided at the tip for increase in tool life and
chattering effect is called as nose radius.

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Tool Designation or Tool Signature-

1. As per American standards Association System (ASA) or American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) the tool is designated by
following sequence as,

Back Rake, Side Rake, End Relief, Side Relief, End cutting edge
angle, Side cutting edge angle, and the nose radius

αb – αs - θc - θs – Ce – Cs - R

2. Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)-

In ASA system of tool angles, the angles are specified independently of the
position of the cutting edge. It, therefore, does not give any indication of
the behaviour of the tool in practice.
Therefore, in actual cutting operation, we should include the side cutting
edge (principal cutting angle) in the scheme of reference planes. Such a
system is known as orthogonal rake system (ORS).
As mentioned above, in this system the planes for designating tools are the
planes containing the principal or side cutting edge and the plane normal to
it. In the plane NN which is normal to the principal cutting edge and is
known as orthogonal plane or the chief plane, we have the following
angles: side relief angle γ, the side rake angle (known as orthogonal
rake angle) α, wedge (lip angle) and the cutting angle (see below fig).
The side relief angle is the angle between the side (main) flank and the
cutting plane. The side rake angle, α, is the angle between the tool face and
a plane normal to the cutting plane and passing through the main cutting
edge. This angle is positive when the face slopes downward from the plane
perpendicular to the cutting plane, equal to zero when the face is
perpendicular to the cutting plane and negative when the face slopes
upward. The “wedge angle”, β is the angle between the tool face and the
main flank. The “cutting angle", δ is the angle between the tool face and
the cutting plane. When α is positive,
We have,
α + γ + wedge angle = 900
y+β=δ

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The usual values of α and γ are:

α = -100 to +150, γ = 60 to 120
In the ORS, the back/rake angle is the inclination angle (i) between the
principal cutting edge and a line passing through the point of the tool
parallel to the principal plane. This angle is measured in a plane passing
through the main cutting edge and perpendicular to the basic plane. In Fig.
the angle i is negative with tool nose being the highest point of the cutting
edge. It will be zero when the cutting edge is parallel to the basic plane and
positive if the cutting edge is towards the right of the line passing through
the point of the tool and parallel to the principal (basic) plane, that is, the
tool nose is the lowest point of the cutting edge.

In addition to the angles discussed above, angles are also measured in the
plane MM (known as Auxiliary reference plane) which is normal to the
projection of the end cutting edge on the basic plane.

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These angles are the end relief angle γ1 and the back rake angle α1 (also
called as auxiliary rake angle). The plan angles are the approach angle or
entering angle λ which is equal to (90° - Cs) and the end cutting edge
angle, Ce.
γ1 = 8° to 10°, λ = 30° to 70°, Ce = 10° to 15°

The tool designation under ORS is:

i – α – γ - γ1 – Ce – λ – R

A typical tool designation (signature) is:

0 - 10 - 6 - 6 - 8 - 90 - 1 mm

Inter conversion between ASA system and ORS

In the second and third equations above, the values of angles α and i are
taken with their signs.
Types / Arrangements of Single Point cutting tools-

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Effect of Tool Geometry on Tool Life:

The larger the cutting angle the greater the deformation, heat generation
and forces acting on the tool, the more intensive tool wear and shorter the
tool life. When cutting angle is reduced (positive rake angle is increased),
the cutting forces, deformation and heat generation are reduced and tool
life is increased. The more the relief angle of the tool, the less the friction
of the tool on the work, the less the tool wear and longer tool life larger
values of end cutting edge angle give more life to tool. Similarly a higher
value of side cutting edge angle gives longer life to tool. Increase in nose
radius improves tool life as the smaller nose radius results in excess stress
concentration and greater heat generation. The relationship between cutting
speed, tool life (T) and nose radius (r) is given by
VT0.0927 = 331 r0.244
Where (V) is the cutting speed in feet per minute, (T) is the tool life in
minutes and r is the nose radius in inch.

Above Fig. shows the tool life relationship with positive rake angle. The
optimum value of rake angle (α) is more for smaller values of tensile stress (ft),
of work material. The tensile stress ft3 > ft2 > ft1, the optimum rake angle is α3
> α2 > α1.
The typical relationship between tool life and relief angle is shown in below
Fig.

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The greater the relief angle of the tool the less the friction of tool on the work,
less tool wear and tool will have longer life. The optimum relief angle for work
material at different feed (f) is different. Feed f3 > f2 >f1 and relief angle is γ3 >
γ2 > γ1.

Types of Multipoint Cutting Tool:

Multi-edge cutting tools present more than one cutting edge to the work. They
have a higher metal removal rate than single edged cutting tools and also the life
of the multi-edge cutting tool is raised by increasing the number of cutting
edges. The different multi-edge cutting tools are divided into two groups as
shown in Table.
Group Machines Cutting Tools
Drills Twist drills
Capstan Reamers
A Lathe Multi flute core drills
Turret Counter bores spot
Lathe Saws and slotting
Milling Saws and slotting
Machines Cutters, Side and face
B cutters, Slab mills, End
mills, Face mills, Form-
relieved cutters.

A grinding wheel is also a form of multi-edge cutting tool.

The tools in group A have their cutting edges in continuous engagement with
the work and are fed axially at a uniform feed per revolution. The under formed

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chip thickness is therefore constant and directly proportional to the feed/rev.

The geometry and mechanics of cutting are then identical with those discussed
for single point tools. The various tools in group B have their cutting edges
intermittently engaged with the work and are fed in a plane parallel or
perpendicular to the cutter axis of rotation.

Drills-
It is used to produce a hole in the workpiece. Its sole purpose is to remove the
maximum volume of metal in a minimum period of time. The finish obtained by
a drill is not so fine. If a hole of accurate size and good finish is required the
drilled hole should be finish machined by means of a reamer or by single point
boring tool. Twist drills are usually made of high speed steel. High carbon steel
can also be used to manufacture drills. Drills with cemented carbide Cutting tips
(tips are brazed) are used at very high speeds for drilling operations on non-
ferrous metals but are not recommended for ferrous metal particularly steels
because the tips are not supported as effectively as in single point cutting tool or
milling cutters.

Fig.- Elements of drill tool

Fig.- Point of cutting in drill tool

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Milling Cutters:

Milling is an operation in which metal cutting is carried out by means of multi-

teeth rotating tool called cutter. The cutters are manufactured in a variety of
shapes and size each made for a specific purpose. In milling cutters each tooth
after taking a cut comes into operation again after some interval of time. This
allows the tooth to cool down before the next cutting operation is done by it.
This minimises the effect of heat developed in cutting on cutting edges. A
coolant is helpful when milling steel for producing a good surface finish. The
coolant may be oil or an emulsion of oil and water. The form of each tooth of
cutter is same as that of a single point tool.
Many types of milling cutters are used on a milling machine. Most of them are
considered standard and are available in many sizes. High speed steel is the
material commonly favoured for cutters. They are also available with carbide
tips at cutting edges. Cutters should be kept sharp. Cutters which are sharpened
frequently usually last longer than those which are allowed to become dull. A
milling cutter is a multiple tooth tool and therefore higher requirements are
made to its construction, sharpening and operation. The cutter should be reliably
and rigidly clamped on the spindle. Milling cutters may be solid, inter locking,
carbide tipped solid cutters and inserted blade cutters with high speed steel or
carbide tipped blades. The various advantages of carbide tipped cutters either
solid or inserted blade type is as follows:
(i) They have high production capacity.
(ii) They produce surface finish of high quality.
(iii)They can machine hardened steels.
(iv)Their use leads to reduction in machining costs.

Up or conventional milling: In this process the cutter rotates against the

direction in which the work is feeding.

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Down milling or Climb milling:

In this process the cutter rotates in the same direction as that in which the work
is feeding. The machine in which high velocity milling is to done should not
only be capable of operating at high speeds and feeds but should also possess
ample rigidity. The cutter should be reliable and rigidly clamped on the spindle.

Fig.- Elements of milling cutter

Broaching Tool:
A broaching tool or a broach has a series of multiple teeth. The main elements
of a broaching tool are shown in below Fig. The first teeth are designed to do
the heaviest cutting and are called roughing teeth. Next teeth are semi-finishing
teeth which are followed by finishing teeth. The finishing teeth carry out

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finishing operation below fig shows teeth details. The rake angle (face angle) of
the tooth depends on the material to be cut and its hardness, toughness and
ductility.

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Speed and feed

For all metal-cutting processes, "speeds and feeds" are important parameters.
The colloquial term "speeds and feeds" refers to the speed, feed, and depth of
cut of a metal-cutting process. To describe these parameters, we will be using
the turning process. The figure below shows the important geometry. The speed
(Labeled on the figure as V.) is the cutting speed, which is a measure of the part
cut surface speed relative to the (here, stationary) tool.
Speed is a velocity unit, which is typically listed in terms of feet/min,
inches/min, meters/second, or meters/min.
Feed (Labeled on the figure as fr), is the amount of material removed for each
revolution or per pass of the tool over the workpiece. Feed is measured in units
of length/revolution, length/pass, length/tooth, length/time, or other appropriate
unit for the particular process.
The depth of cut, DOC (Labeled on the figure as d.), represents the third
parameter for metal cutting. For turning, DOC is the depth that the tool is
plunged into the surface. The DOC is half of the difference in the diameters D a
and Db,
the initial and final diameters, respectively.

Below is a summary list of the terms used.

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Speeds and feeds are important since they are critical input parameters
which determine the output of a machine tool. Other inputs include the material
of the part, the shape of the raw stock and final part, and the geometry of the
machine tool used. Outputs include the surface finish, the time to machine each
part, the temperature of the cutting tool and cut part, the residual stresses left in
the part, and warping of the part.
Speeds and feeds typically take much experience and experimenation to
determine accurately, but a good place to start is a table of recommended speeds
and feeds.
The MRR, or the Metal Removal Rate, is listed at the end of the above relation
list. For turning, MRR values range from 0.1 to 600 in3 per minute. Most
processes have MRR's that can be expressed as the volume of metal removed
divided by the time needed to remove it:
MRR = (volume of cut)/(cutting time).
MRR can be used to estimate the power required to sustain the cutting
operation. With turning, the cutting time can be expressed as the following:

Where the symbols have the same meanings as defined earlier on this page and
the allowance is an estimation factor which is added to the L term to allow for
the tool to enter and exit the cut.

A single-point tool is a cutting tool that cuts only at a single edge or area of the

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cutting tool. Turning and shaping are examples of single-point cutting.

Multiple-point cutting processes are milling and drilling.
Chip Formation Theory-
Below is illustrated the basic geometry of two-dimensional chip formation. The
model is two-dimensional for simplicity.

The material immediately in front of the tool is bent upward and is compressed
in a narrow zone of shear which is shaded on the drawing above. For most
analyses, this shear area can be simplified to a plane.

As the tool moves forward, the material ahead of the tool passes through this
shear plane. If the material is ductile, fracture will not occur and the chip will be
in the form of a continuous ribbon. If the material is brittle, the chip will
periodically fracture and separate chips will be formed. It is within the shear
zone that gross deformation of the material takes place which allows the chips
to be removed. As on the stress-strain diagram of a metal, the elastic
deformation is followed by plastic deformation. The material ultimately must
yield in shear.

The figure below depicts the cutting area in terms of lines of flow. As the

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material flows from the bulk of the work piece to the shear area, it is violently
sheared, and then continues into the chip section.

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