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Lecture notes, in Materials Engineering

Introduction to Materials and Materials Forming (University of Nottingham)

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Introduction to Materials and Materials Forming

MM 1 IMF
Handout 2

Classes of Materials

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Overview
Dr Andrew Kennedy
A35 Coates Building

Materials in Engineering

Classes / types of materials – with some

common examples

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Materials in Engineering
Before we can select a material or design with it, we need
to understand the basic requirements for it to fulfil its
function, (for example it might need to have a high
melting point and to absorb lots of energy on impact).

With this understanding, and a knowledge of how these

properties vary for different types (or classes) of
materials, we can make a broad choice of material that
would be suitable (a metal in this instance).

With data for the properties of different materials and the

equations that govern the behaviour under the
appropriate conditions, we can select a specific material
and define the geometry required. 3
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Classification of Materials
Broadly speaking, we can divide the thousands of
materials available into several categories. These
categories, or classes, contain materials with similar
types of bonds which hold together the basic building
blocks (atoms or molecules) of the material.

Since the nature of the bonding defines the physical and

mechanical properties, materials in the same class share
similar properties and are suitable for similar
applications.

NB whilst the characteristic properties of materials in a

particular class are broadly the same, the numerical
value of these properties can vary significantly due to
variations in their composition and structure. 4
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Classification of Materials
Materials can be classified into the following four groups:

i) metals,
ii) ceramics and glasses,
iii) polymers and elastomers (rubbers)
iv) composite materials.

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The world of materials

Steels
Cast irons
Al-alloys

Metals
Cu-alloys
Ni-alloys
Ti-alloys
PE, PP, PC
Alumina PA (Nylon)
Si-Carbide
Polymers,
Ceramics,
GFRP elastomers
glasses CFRP Butyl rubber
Soda-glass Neoprene
Pyrex Composites
KFRP
Plywood

Polymer foams Woods

Metal foams
Natural
Foams materials
Ceramic foams
Natural fibres:
Glass foams Hemp, Flax,
Cotton

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Engineering Materials
Classes of Materials
Metals and alloys Polymers
Iron and steels Polyethylene (PE)
Aluminium and its alloys Perspex (PMMA)
Copper and its alloys Nylon
Nickel and its alloys Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Titanium and its alloys Rubbers
Ceramics and glasses Composites
Alumina (Al2O3) Wood
Silica (SiO2) Fibreglass
Silicon carbide (SiC) Carbon fibre composites
Silicon nitride (Si3N4) Filled polymers
Cements and concrete Cermets (metal-ceramic)
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Metals
Metals have metallic bonding in which the outer
electrons form a delocalised “sea” around the close-
packed metal cations. The non-directional nature of this
bonding allows metals atoms to slide past each other,
resulting in good ductility, and also enables metal atoms
to pack closely together resulting in high density
structures. The sharing of free electrons enables them to
move easily under an applied potential difference, giving
metals high electrical conductivity. The metallic bond is
strong and stiff, giving metals high stiffness and strength,
high melting points and low coefficients of thermal
expansion.

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Metals
For engineering applications, metals are usually used in
the form of an alloy, a mixture of two or more elements in
which the major component is a metal. Most pure metals
are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive to use on
their own and so alloying can be used to increase
strength and hardness and improve corrosion resistance.

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Examples of Engineering Metals

Steels: Carbon steels are alloys of iron and carbon.
Steels with additions of other elements (for example
chromium, molybdenum and nickel) are called alloy steels
and have higher strengths. Stainless steels contain very
high (>13%) additions of chromium and nickel which gives
them their excellent corrosion resistance. Steels are
among the most commonly used metals and have a wide
variety of applications such as in transport and
construction. They are available as plate, sheet, tube,
bar, wire, castings and forgings.

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Examples of Engineering Metals

Aluminium alloys: Aluminium is a light metal with a high
strength-to-weight ratio and good corrosion resistance.
As a result it is often used for containers, packaging,
construction, transportation and sports equipment.
Aluminium is available in a wide variety of cast and
wrought (mechanically worked) shapes. There are two
main types of alloys, those used for casting (mainly
aluminium - silicon alloys) and those suitable for
mechanical working (mainly aluminium – copper and
aluminium - magnesium alloys).

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Examples of Engineering Metals

Copper alloys: Copper is ductile (easily formed) and is an
excellent conductor of heat and electricity. As a result,
copper is used for electrical and electronic components
and plumbing. Copper alloys can achieve a wide range of
properties by the addition of different alloying elements.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and has a much
higher strength than pure copper. Bronze is an alloy of
copper and tin and is used in bearings.

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Examples of Engineering Metals

Nickel superalloys: Superalloys are metals with excellent
heat resistance and good high temperature properties.
These alloys were mostly developed for use as turbine
blades in jet engines and can operate at over 1000°C
under high stresses. Current jet engine superalloys
contain mostly nickel with large additions of chromium
and cobalt. They have trade names such as InconelTM
and HastelloyTM.

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Ceramics and glasses

Ceramic materials are held together by ionic or covalent
bonds. With these bonding types the valence electrons
are shared or donated, which means that ceramics are
poor conductors of electricity and heat. The bonds are
very strong and stiff, giving ceramics very high stiffness
and strength very low coefficients of thermal expansion
and very high melting points. The nature of their bonding
means that it is very difficult for atoms to slide past each
other in the way that they do in metals under stress. Their
inability to undergo plastic flow means that ceramics are
susceptible to failure in a catastrophic way if they contain
cracks (they are brittle).

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Ceramics and glasses

Engineering ceramics are usually used in compression to
avoid problems with crack propagation in tension.
Ceramics resist oxidation and corrosion and are
frequently used for their ability to withstand high
temperature and for their high hardness. However, they
are the least widely used group of engineering materials

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Examples of Engineering Ceramics

Alumina: Aluminium oxide is hard and brittle with poor
electrical and thermal conductivity. It is used for thermal
insulation, as an oxidation barrier, in spark plugs, in
cutting tools and as an abrasive.

Silicon Nitride: Silicon nitride has a high thermal

conductivity and toughness (for a ceramic). It is used in
cutting tools, grit blasting nozzles, turbocharger rotors,
turbine blades and shroud rings (for small jet engines).

Carbon Fibre: Carbon fibre has a high strength to weight

ratio and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. Carbon
fibre is most commonly used to reinforce composite
materials. Carbon fibre is also used in filters, electrodes
and anti-static devices. 16
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Ceramics and glasses

Glass is an amorphous material, without a regular crystal
structure. This allows light to be transmitted through it.
The bonding in glass is covalent resulting in a brittle
material which is very susceptible to failure in the
presence of defects. Glasses contain mainly silicon
dioxide (also called silica) with other oxides added to
impart specialist properties (to improve durability, colour
or lustre, light absorption or transmission). The main uses
for glass are based on its optical transparency and it
being non-reactive. It is also used in the form of fibres for
optical cables, insulation and reinforcement for polymers.

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Examples of glasses

Soda–lime glasses: Sodium oxide (soda) and calcium

oxide (lime) are added to silica to produce low melting
point glasses that are easily formed and very widely used
for windows, bottles and light bulbs.

Borosilicate glasses: Boron oxide is added to made heat

resistant and low expansion boro-silicate glasses
(PyrexTM) used for cookware and laboratory equipment.

E-glass: E-Glass contains aluminium oxide, calcium oxide

and magnesium oxide additions. It has excellent fibre-
forming capabilities and is used almost exclusively as the
reinforcing phase in glass-fibre reinforced polymer
composites (fibreglass). 18
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Polymers and elastomers

Polymer is a term used to describe a chain of thousands
of monomers that are linked together by the covalently-
bonded carbon atoms of the polymer backbone. For
example, the formation of polyethylene involves
thousands of ethylene molecules bonded together to
form a long chain. The structure of polymers can be
visualised as tangled chains which form low density
structures with no regularity. The attractive forces
between polymer chains play a large part in determining
a polymer's structure and properties.

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Polymers and elastomers

Some polymers, such as polyethylene, have weak forces
between the chains. The low bond strength and stiffness
gives these polymers a low strength and melting
temperature but they are capable of forming ordered
structures (crystallising) if cooled slowly from the liquid
state (after which they become opaque –since light is
scattered by the regular polymer structure). These
polymers are deemed thermoplastic.

Polymers with stronger, chemical cross linking between

the chains have higher tensile strengths, are incapable of
forming ordered structures (so remain amorphous and
transparent, like glasses) and do not soften with heating
(they burn instead) and are termed thermosetting.
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Polymers and elastomers

Rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer (elastomer)
which occurs as a milky colloidal suspension (known as
latex) in the sap of several varieties of plants. Rubber can
also be produced synthetically. In its relaxed state,
rubber consists of long, coiled chains that are interlinked
at a few points. When rubber is stretched, the coiled
chains unravel. When relaxed, the chains re-coil.
Vulcanization of rubber creates more bonds between
chains, making each free section of chain shorter, making
the rubber harder and less extendable.

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Examples of Polymers
The use of polymers is widespread exploiting their
reasonable strength and low density, examples are:

NylonTM has good mechanical properties and abrasion

resistance; it is self-lubricating and resistant to most
chemicals. It is commonly used as gears and bearings.

KevlarTM has a very high tensile strength and stiffness

and is commonly used in the form of fibres to reinforce
bullet-proof jackets, tyres and sports equipment.

PerspexTM has moderate strength but good optical

properties (it can be transparent or opaque), it weathers
well and is resistant to chemicals. It is frequently used for
lenses and windows. 22
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Examples of Polymers
Polyethylene has moderate strength but is easily formed.
Low density polyethylene is used for houseware, bottles,
cans and car bumpers, the high density version is used
for canoes and machine parts.

Epoxies: Epoxy resins, such as Araldite, have excellent

mechanical properties and good adhesive properties.
They are resistant to heat and chemical attack and are
used as matrices for polymer composites.

Phenolics: Phenolics, such as Bakelite, are brittle but

have a high resistance to heat, electricity and chemicals.
They are used as electrical insulators and as connection
blocks. 23
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Examples of elastomers
Rubbers: Natural and synthetic rubbers (for example
neoprene or silicone) are flexible and can be made hard
wearing with the addition of fillers such as sand or
graphite. They are used for car tyres, tubing, “O” rings
and gaskets and for insulating electric cables.

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Composite Materials
Composite materials (or composites) are engineered
materials made from two or more constituent materials,
with significantly different physical or chemical
properties, which remain separate and distinct within the
finished structure.

There are two types of constituent materials: matrix and

reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and
supports the reinforcements by maintaining their relative
positions and protects them from damage and chemical
attack. The reinforcements enhance the matrix properties
and the resulting mechanical and physical properties are
thus between those of the matrix and those of the
reinforcement, determined by the percentage of
reinforcement added. 25
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Composite Materials
Natural composites include bone and wood. The most
widely used engineering composites are polymer
matrices reinforced with ceramic (glass or carbon) fibres,
but metal-ceramic and ceramic-ceramic composites,
containing reinforcement in the form of either particles or
fibres, are also used. Composites containing fibres
(including wood) have the complication for designers of
different properties in different directions with respect to
the direction of the fibres.

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Composite Materials
Composites offer the possibility to tailor the properties of
a material, in order to meet very demanding service
conditions, through the type and level of reinforcement.
Composites with high strength and stiffness (from carbon
fibres) and low weight (from a polymer matrix) are used to
meet the very demanding service conditions encountered
in military aviation, space exploration and motor sport.

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Summary
The vast variety of different materials can be divided into
4 different classes. In these classes (metals,
ceramics…..) the materials share the same broad
properties (thermal, physical, mechanical)

Within each classification, however, the values of these

properties can vary widely (e.g. steel and lead)

The properties the material exhibit dictate the

applications for which they are suitable

With an appreciation of the service conditions and

requirements for a component, we can make a crude
choice as to which class/classes of materials we could
make it from 28
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Summary of attributes
Materials

Metals Polymers Polymer Ceramics

& Composites
Alloys

• Good conductor • Plasticity • Strong • Strong

- heat and • High-temperature
electricity • Light weight • Light weight
strength
• Low cost • Wide choice of colors
• Strong • Low thermal and
• Easy to form • Low electrical electrical conductivity
conductivity
• Resistance to wear
• Waterproof
• Inexpensive

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Something to consider!
• Some objects can be made from metals, ceramics or
polymers.

The resulting part will, however, have different properties and

hence be suitable for different applications depending on the
material class chosen.

• Consider the following examples for:

A cup
A bolt
A spring

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A cup
A metal cup:
+ strong, tough, hard wearing, light, high melting point
- good conductor of heat
Used by campers / army can be treated roughly and cooked
in: stainless steel, Al, enamel (ceramic) coated steel

A ceramic cup:
+ poor conductor of heat, high melting point
- brittle (fragile)
Used for hot and cold drinks but don’t drop it!: ceramics
(china) and glass

A polymer cup:
+ light, cheap, poor conductor of heat
- weak, low melting point
-Used for hot but more often cold drinks, disposable: PS, PE 31
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A spring
A metal spring:
+ strong, tough, hard wearing, high melting point
- stiff
Used for most engineering applications: spring steels

A ceramic spring:
+ strong, high melting point, low thermal expansion (stable)
- stiff, brittle (fragile in tension)
Used for precision instruments / machines: glass

A polymer spring:
+ light, cheap,
- weak, low melting point, high expansion
- Used for toys: PE, ABS, Nylon

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A bolt
A metal bolt:
+ strong, stiff, tough, hard wearing, high melting point
-
Used for most engineering applications: engineering steels

A ceramic bolt:
+ high melting point, low thermal expansion, insulating
- brittle (fragile in tension)
Used for niche applications : engineering ceramics

A polymer bolt:
+ light, cheap,
- weak, low melting point, high expansion
- Used for low stress, low T : Nylon

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Food for thought

• Designers and engineers have to make multiple materials
choices when creating or improving machines or consumer
items. They need to make these informed choices by
understanding the properties of different materials

• For the example of a kettle (below) the mechanical,

thermal and electrical performance must be considered and
the right materials selected for it to function
• These same properties must
be considered to choose the
best manufacturing method to
match the shape and number
required
• Cost and aesthetics need to
be considered for it to sell! 34
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