GenChem PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

STATES OF MATTER

ANAXIMES (flourished c. 545 BCE) –

asserted primal element was air. EPIRICUS OF SAMOS (341 – 270 BCE) –
popularized atomism, that matter is made up of
THALES OF MILETUS (flourished 6th atoms. Proposed the different types of atoms
century BCE) – thought primal element was have different weights ad all have the same
water. speed regardless of size.

HERACLITUS (c. 540-480 BCE) - believed Plato and Aristotle - went against atomism.
that it was fire.
ARISTOTLE - agreed with Empedocles that all
EMPEDOCLES (c. 490-430 BCE) – proposed matter was made up of 4fundamental elements
that all matter is made up of 4 fundamental in varying proportions.
elements, - earth, air, fire and water.
-suggested that one element could be
Law of constant proportions, states all things transformed to another, an idea that sparked
of the same type have the same proportions of the field of alchemy.
elements that compose them.
-added 5th element, aether – made up matter
th
LEUCIPPUS – flourished 5 century BCE - found outside of earth and the moon.
around 440 BCE, and his student Democritus
(c. 460 – 370 BCE) wondered what would -his theory was recognized as a continuous
happen to a piece of gold if it is cut indefinitely. theory, that matter can be divided indefinitely
without changing the fundamental
Atomos - uncuttable characteristics of the material.

Principles of Leucippus and Democritus MASS – amount of matter

- All matter is made up of atoms that are VOLUME – space it occupies

too tiny to be seen by the naked eyes.
- Atoms are constant motion around an MATTER – can be described based on its state
empty space called void. or phase – solid, liquid or gas plus plasma and
- Atoms are uniform, with no internal bose-einstein condensate
structure.
- -Atoms come in different shapes and Solid – Particles are tightly packed together,
sizes. can hold its own shape and is hard to
compress. The molecules in a solid are closely
packed together, high density.
GenChem STATES OF MATTER

PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

CHANGING STATES
Liquids – The particles have more movement,
can move around and slide past each other. Melting – solid to liquid
Will take on the shape of the container, easier
Freezing – liquid to solid
to compress than solid.
Vaporization/Boiling – liquid to gas
Gas – The particles are spread out, Atoms
collide randomly with each other. A gas will fill Condensation – gas to liquid
any container but can escape if left unsealed.
Can be easily compressed than a liquid or Deposition- gas to solid
solid.
Sublimation- solid to gas
Plasma – very similar to gas, but it has an
electrical charge. Exists when atoms are
CHEMISTRY
excited state. They jump an energy level and -Study structures, physical properties, and
give of light. Has free ions and electrons, has chemical properties of matter.
the ability to conduct electricity.
Mass – how much matter an object contains.
BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE –
-constant for a body and does not change with
Absolute zero – a temperature at which location.
molecular motion stops. (0k or -273 C).
-the quantity of matter it contains.
-Atoms start behaving like little waves and start
-directly proportional to the force required to
overlapping one another until they eventually
change its speed or direction.
act like one wave and essentially become a
super atom. Weight – is the force exerted on a mass by
gravity.
Daniel Kleppner (Massachusetts institute of
technology) -Not a constant. It changes from place to place.

“particles have lost their identity- they all think

they are everywhere”
GenChem CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

-matter is classified into 2 general types, Shiny and can be Dull cannot be
substance and mixtures. polished polished (except
diamond)
Matter – Occupies space and possesses mass; Malleable and ductile Brittle
may exist as solid, liquid or gas. -Sonorous(ringing -Not sonorous
sound can be heard -Insulators
1.) Pure Substance – matter having an when struck) -Have low melting
invariant chemical composition and distinct -Can conduct heat points
properties. and electricity -Have low tensile
-Usually have high strengths
a.) Element – Fundamental substance; cannot melting points -Have low densities
-Have high tensile
be separated into simpler substances by
strengths
chemical methods. -Have high densities
b.) Compound –Composed of 2 or more
elements in fixed proportions; can be separated Properties of Metals
into simpler substances and elements only by
chemical methods. -good conductors of heat and electricity
(conductivity)
2.) Mixture – matter consisting of 2 or more
pure substances that retain their individual -shiny
identities and can be separated by physical
methods. -ductility

-malleable and can be pounded into tin sheets

a.) Homogeneous Mixture – Having a uniform
composition and properties throughout also (malleability)
called a solution) -reaction with water which results in corrosion
b.) Heterogeneous Mixture – Not a uniform in (corrosion)
composition and properties throughout. Properties of Non-Metals
ELEMENT -Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Metal, semi metals or non-metal -not ductile or malleable
METALS NONMETALS -brittle and break easily
Hard, dense, solid Some are gaseous,
(except mercury) liquids or solids; less -dull
dense; and softer
(except diamond) -many are gases
Strong (can hold Dull, cannot be
heavy loads w/o polished (except
breaking) diamond)
GenChem CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Properties of Metalloids or Semi-metals Matter – anything that occupies space and

have mass.
-have properties alike of metals and non-metals
Composition – parts of the components of a
-can be shiny or dull sample of matter and their relive proportions.
-conduct heat and electricity better than non- Properties – qualities or attributes that we can
metals but not as well as metals. use to distinguish one sample to the other.
-ductile and malleable PHYSICAL PROPERTY
COMPOUND -one that a sample displays without changing
Acids its composition.

-Hydrochloric acid or Muriatic acid (HCI(aq)); Ex. Malleability, brittleness, ductility,

sulphuric acid(H2SO4(aq)) and nitric conductivity
acid(HNO3(aq)). PHYSICAL CHANGE
Bases -may change but its composition remains
unchanged.
-Aluminum hydroxide (AI(OH)3) and
Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2). Basic CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
ingredients of antacids.
-Ability or inability of a sample of matter to
Salts undergo a change in composition under stated
-Sodium chloride (NaCl); Calcium phosphate, condition.
Ca3(PO4)2 a component of fertilizer and baking - one or more kinds of matter are converted to
soda or sodium icarbonate, NaHCO3 bith a new kinds with different compositions.
deodorizer and a cleanser.
-observing change in composition.
Inorganic Compouds Organic Compounds
Set A Set B Intensive Property
-Calcium oxide, CaO -Methane,CH4
-Sodium nitrate, -Ethanol, C2H5OH -is a property that is independent of the quantity
NaNO2 -Acetone, of the substance.
-Magnesium sulfate, CH3COCH3
MgSO4 Extensive Property

-depends on the quantity of a substance.

GenChem CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

CONSUMER PRODUCTS

SEPARATING MATTER CONSUMER PRODUCTS

Filtration – Separating a solid from the liquid in 1.) Household Cleaning Materials
which it is suspended.
-commonly used are bleach, soaps and
-Residue is the solid particles retained in the detergents.
filter paper, and filtrate is the clear liquid that
passes through. 2.) Bleach

Decantation - The liquid above the solid can -helps clean and whiten surface
be poured off carefully into another container. -2 most common bleaching agents are sodium
Mechanical separation – Involves use of hypochlorite (NaOCl) (chlorine bleach) and
forceps, sieves and similar tools. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (oxygen Bleach).

Flotation – In which solid of a suspension 3.)Soap and Detergents

mixture are allowed to settle and the less dense -Mixtures of surfactants, water softeners, stain
material is poured off. removers, enzymes and perfumes.
Centrifugation - The use of centripetal force is -Surfactants render soaps and detergents
present. Centrifugate - the supernatant liquid. capable of lowering the surface tension of
Distillation – process of removing liquid water.
vapour, given off by oiling solution. 4.) Personal Care Products
Fractional distillation – employs the lowering -improve the overall appearance of a person.
of temperature so that more insoluble
component crystallizes out first. Makeup – general term for products applied
externally.
Crystallization - separates mixture based on
differences in solubility. A measure of how Foundation – has a natural occurring mineral
much solid substance remains dissolved in a that is called TALC.
given amount of a specified liquid.
Lipsticks – Made of wax, oil, moisturizers and
Electrolysis – Reverse chemical process pigments.
breaks down compounds into their elements.
Lead - a metal that can cause death if
Chromatography – Uses the difference in ingested.
degree to which substance are absorbed on the
surface of an inert substance. Adsorption Gold micro or nano particles –
chromatography – column and thin layer Believe to provide anti-aging benefits.
chromatography.
GenChem CONSUMER PRODUCTS

MEASUREMENTS

5.) Lotion Mass – (kg) subtly different quantity than

weight, it is independent than gravity.
-generally used to moisturize or hydrate the
skin. Time – (s) defined by an atomic standard using
a cesium clock
-glycerin helps provide hydration and gives
smooth feels of the skin. Temperature – (F, C, K) Kelvin is the base
unit, absolute temperature scale.
6.) Toothpaste
Fahrenheit – most used in the US, 32 F is the
-comes as heterogeneous paste or gels. freezing point of water and 212 F is the boiling
point.
-Anti-decay toothpaste contains sodium fluoride
(NaF) and tin (II) fluoride Celsius – freezing point of water is 0 C and the
boiling point is 100 C.
MEASUREMENTS

-Comparison of a physical quantity to a certain Kelvin – absolute zero

standard. F = 9/5 C + 32
-Most measurements in chemistry are made in C = 5/9 (F – 32)
SI Units.
K = C + 273
Conversion Factor – converting units
DENSITY
International System of Units (SI Units)
-helps characterize it physically and is
- The Systeme International d’ Unites determined by dividing its mass (or weight).
-scientific system of measurement D = m/v
-The unit indicates the standard against which m=vxD
quantity is being compared.
v=mxD
Conversion
2 Types of errors
1L – 1000 ml 1kg – 1000 grams
Systematic errors – instruments have built in
1 gram – 1000 mg 1 km – 1000 m errors

1 meter – 100 cm 1 cm – 10 mm Random errors – humans are the one making

the errors
GenChem MEASUREMENTS

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

Precision ATOMIC THEORY

-closeness of agreement when the same Democritus develops the idea of atoms 440
quantity is measured several times BC

Accuracy -pounded up materials I his pestle and mortar

until he had reduced them to smaller and
-how close a measured value is to the smaller particles which he called ATOMA.
accepted, or real value
DALTON’S THEORY (1803)
Scientific Notation
-all matter is consists of tiny particles called
-often deal with numbers that are either atoms
extremely large or extremely small.
-an atom cannot be created, divided, destroyed
N x 10n or converted to any other type of atom
N is a number between 1 and 10, n is the -atoms of a particular element have identical
exponent. properties
Significant Figures -atoms of different elements have different
-all nonzero digits are significant properties

-atoms of different elements combine in simple

-leading zero are not significant
whole number ratios to produce compounds
-middle zeros are significant (stale aggregate of atoms).

-tail zeros are significant -chemical change involves joining, separating

or rearranging atoms.
-for whole numbers, tail zeros may o may not
be significant. Only postulate 1, 4, 5 and 6 are currently
regarded as true

William Crookes and Eugene Goldstein -

indicated atom is composed of charged + and –
particles.

James Chadwick -demonstrated the existence

of neutron with the series of experiment
involving the use of small particle bombarded
with nuclei.

Model: Ordinary sphere

GenChem DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

J.J. THOMPSON (1897) NEILS BOHR (1913)

-demonstrated the electrical and magnetic -each atomic nucleus are fixed energy levels
properties of cathode rays. that could be occupied by electrons. He also
believed that each level defined by the
-he announced that cathode rays are streams spherical orbit around the nucleus, located at a
of negative particles of energy. These particles specific distance from the nucleus.
are called electrons.
Quantization of energy – the concept of
-Goldstein led to the discovery of particles that certain fixed energy levels.
are equal in charge to the electron but opposite
in sign. These particles, much heavier than the Absorbs, promote (from lower energy to
electrons (actually 1837 times as heavy), are higher energy), excited, relaxes (goes back to
called protons. its orbit, returns to ground state)

Model: plum-pudding model Model: Solar-system model

ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1909) Modern Atomic Theory

-an experiment by Hans Geiger led him to Max Planck – in certain situations, energy
propose that the majority of the mass and possessed particle like properties.
positive charge of the atom was actually
located in a small, dense region, the nucleus, Louis deBroglie – that the reverse could be
with small, negative charged electrons true as well; Electrons at time could behave as
occupying the space outside. waves rather than the particles (wave – particle
duality).
Natural radioactivity – some atoms
spontaneously decay to produce radiation: Werner Heisenberg – argued that it would be
alpha particle -24He2+, beta, gamma radiation. impossible to exactly specify the location of a
particle (such as the electron) because of its
-most of the atom is empty space, wave like character.
because most alpha particles were deflected.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle (1927)
-most of the mass positive charges were states that it is impossible to specify both the
located in a small dense region. location and the momentum (momentum is the,
m x v) of an electron at the same time.
-collision of the heavy and positively
charged alpha particle with this small dense
and positive region (the nucleus) caused the
great defelections.

Model: planetary model

GenChem DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

COMPOSITION OF ATOMS Isotopes

Atom – basic structural unit of an element, -have different mass numbers.

smallest element that remains the chemical
properties of that element. Ex. Isotopes of hydrogen

Scanning tunnelling electron microscopy – Protium (H-1) = 1 electron, 1 proton, 0 neutron

provide visual evidence for the structure of Deuterium (H-2) = 1 electron, 1 proton, 1
atoms and molecules. neutron
Electrons, Protons and Neutrons Tritium (H-3) = 1 electron, 1 proton, 2 neutron
1. Nucleus is small, dense, positively charged
Ions
region in the center of the atom. The nucleus is
composed of positively charged protons and Electrically charged particles that result from
uncharged neutrons. gain of one or more electrons by the parent
atom (forming negative ions, or anions) or a
2. Surrounding the nucleus is a diffuse region of loss of one or more electrons from the parent
negative charge populated electrons, the atom (forming positive ion or cations)
source of the negative charge. Electrons are
very low in mass in contrast to the protons and
neutrons.

name charge Mass Mass (grams)

(amu)
Electron -1 5.4 x 10-4 9.1095 x 10-28
(e)
Proton +1 1.00 1.6725 x 10-24
(p)
Neutron 0 1.00 1.6750 x 10-24
(n)

mass number

8 O
16
(no. of protons and neutron)

atomic number
(no. of protons)