Middle Technical University-Baghdad Dr. Zainab H.

Mahdi
Building and Construction Dept.

Loads:
 The most important most difficult task forced by the structural engineer is
the accurate estimation of the loads that may be applied to a structure during
its life.
 The next important task is to determine the worst possible combinations of
these loads that might occur at one time.
 The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be
able to withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its
purpose throughout its intended life span.
 Loads can be classified into three categories: dead loads, live loads, and
environmental loads.

Dead loads:
 Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position.
 The weight of the structure is considered dead load as well as attachments to
the structure such as: pipes, air-conditioning, heating ducts, roof and floor
covering, etc.

Live loads:
 Live loads are loads that may change in position and magnitude. They are
caused when a structure is occupied, used, and maintained.
 Examples of live load are human occupants, furniture, movable equipment,
vehicles, and stored goods.
 The typical minimum uniform live loads that should be used for designing of
buildings are shown in the table below.

1
Middle Technical University-Baghdad Dr. Zainab H. Mahdi
Building and Construction Dept.

LL
Type of building
(psf)
Apartment 40
Apartment houses
Public rooms 100
Dining rooms and restaurants 100
Garages passenger cars only 50
Gymnasiums main floors and balconies 100
Lobbies 100
Office buildings
Offices 50
Classrooms 40
Corridors first floor 100
Schools
Corridors above first
80
floor
Light 125
Storage Warehouses
Heavy 250
First floor 100
Stores (retail)
Other floors 75

 Typical constricted live load for building

Hospitals-operating room, private rooms and wards 1000 Ib

Manufacturing building (light) 2000 Ib
Manufacturing building (heavy) 3000 Ib
Office floors 2000 Ib
Retail stores (first floors) 1000 Ib
Retail stores (upper floors) 1000 Ib
School classrooms 1000 Ib
School corridors 1000 Ib

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Middle Technical University-Baghdad Dr. Zainab H. Mahdi
Building and Construction Dept.

Environmental load:
For example, snow loads, rain loads, wind loads, and earthquake loads.
Acceptable methods for designing structural steel member:
 The AISC specification provides two acceptable methods for designing steel
structural members and their connections, which are load and resistance
factor design (LRFD) and allowable strength Design (ASD).
 Both procedures are based on limit state design principles. The term limit
state is used to describe a condition at which a structure or part of a structure
ceases to perform its function. There are two categories of limit state:
strength and serviceability.
 Strength limit states define load – carrying capacity including yielding,
fracture, buckling, and fatigue.
 Serviceability limit states define performance including deflection, cracking
and vibration.
 With both LRFD and ASD the term nominal strength is used. The nominal
strength of member is its calculated theoretical strength with no resistance
factor (∅ Phi) or safety factor (Ω Omega) applied. A resistance factor
usually less than 1.0 is multiplied by the nominal strength of a member to
account for variation in material strength, member dimensions and
workmanship.
 With both LRFD and ASD procedures values of the individual loads (dead,
live, wind, snow, etc.) are first estimated. These loads are referred to as
service or working loads.
 With the LRFD method, possible service load groups are formed and each
service load is multiplied by a load factor, normally larger than 1.0. The
result linear combination of service loads in a group, each multiplied by its
respective load factor, is called factored load.
Reduction factor * nominal strength of member ≥ computed factored forces in
member
∅𝑅𝑛 ≥ 𝑅𝑢

3
Middle Technical University-Baghdad Dr. Zainab H. Mahdi
Building and Construction Dept.

 ASD
𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
≥ 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑛
≥ 𝑅𝑎
Ω
Computing combined loads with LRFD expression:
 Load factors are calculated to increase the magnitude of service loads to use
with the LRFD procedure. The purpose of these factors is to account for the
uncertainties involved in estimation the magnitude of dead and live loads.
1. 𝑈 = 1.4𝐷
2. 𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
3. 𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) + (0.5𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.8𝑊)
4. 𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝑊 + 0.5𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
5. 𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸 + 0.5𝐿 + 0.2𝑆
6. 𝑈 = 0.9𝐷 ± (1.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 1.0𝐸)
In these load combinations the following abbreviation are used:
1. 𝑈 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
3. 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦
4. 𝐿𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
5. 𝑆 = 𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
6. 𝑅 = 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑐𝑒
7. 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
8. 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Computing combined loads with ASD expression:
1. 𝑈=𝐷
2. 𝑈 =𝐷+𝐿
3. 𝑈 = 𝐷 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
4. 𝑈 = 𝐷 + 0.75𝐿 + 0.75(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
5. 𝑈 = 𝐷 ± (𝑊 𝑜𝑟 0.7𝐸)
6. 𝑈 = 𝐷 ± 0.75(𝑊 𝑜𝑟 0.5𝐸) + 0.75𝐿 + 0.75(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
7. 𝑈 = 0.6𝐷 ± (𝑊 𝑜𝑟 0.7𝐸)