UNIT – VV

TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS

CONTENTS:

 OC and SC tests
 Sumpner’stest
 Predetermination of efficiency and regulation
 Separation of losses test
 Parallel operation with equal and unequal voltage ratios
 Auto transformers- equivalent circuit
 Comparison with two winding Transformers

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Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) tests:

They are conducted on the transformer to find out the transformer losses and
from them to determine the circuit constants that are used to represent the
equivalent circuit. From these parameters the transformer efficiency and
regulation can also be calculated. These tests are conducted without actually
loading the transformer to its full load and hence the power consumed during the
test is very small as compared to its full load (rated) power.

Open Circuit or No Load test:

The test setup to conduct the OC test is shown in the figure below.

Fig: Test Setup to conduct the Open Circuit or No Load test

Low voltage side is designated as Primary and High voltage side is designated as
Secondary. Voltmeter V1 , Ammeter A and wattmeter W are connected in the
primary as shown . Voltmeter V2 is connected in the open circuited Secondary.
Since the secondary is open circuited a small value of no load current called I0
flows in the primary and this is measured by the ammeter A. The power loss in
the transformer is due to core losses and a very small I2R loss in the primary.
There is no I2R loss in the secondary since the secondary is open and there is no
secondary current. Since I2R loss in the primary also is very small the no load
current is very small (usually 2 to 5 % of the full load current). The core loss is
dependent on the flux which in turn depends on the applied voltage. Since full

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rated voltage is applied to the primary in this test, full rated flux will be set up and
the full Core losses will be present. And these core losses will be constant at all
loads. Since the I2R loss in the primary is very small compared to the core losses,
they can be ignored and the full power consumed in the primary as read by
wattmeter W can be regarded as the core losses. With this understanding the
readings of the various meters in the OC test are as follows.

 Ammeter reading : No load current I0

 Volt meter reading : Applied rated Primary voltage V1
 Wattmeter reading : Input power totally consumed as Core losses PCL

From these measurements the parameters RC and XM shown in the equivalent

circuit can be computed as shown below.

No load power factor : Cos Ɵ = PCL / V1.I0 (Since Input power = PCL = V1.I0.
Cos Ɵ )

We already know from the equivalent circuit description that ICL is the core loss
current corresponding to RC and IM is the magnetizing current corresponding to
XM and in terms of the present measurements are given by :
ICL = I0. Cos Ɵ and IM = I0. Sin Ɵ

Therefore RC and XM are given by :

RC = V1 / ICL and XM = V1 / IM

Short Circuit test:

The test setup to conduct the SC test is shown in the figure below.

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 HV side LV side

Fig: Test Setup to conduct the Short Circuit test

In this test high voltage side is designated as Primary (where an input voltage is
applied) and the low voltage side is designated as Secondary which is usually
short-circuited by a thick conductor(or sometimes through an Ammeter to read
additionally the secondary load current).Voltmeter V, Ammeter A and wattmeter
W are connected in the primary as shown.
A very low voltage through a Variac (Variable auto transformer) is applied to the
primary gradually from zero Volts to about 5 to 10 % of the rated primary value
till the primary current is just equal to the rated primary current. Since the
secondary is short circuited we will get rated primary current with a low value of
voltage itself. Since the applied voltage is very low the flux produced is also very
low. Hence the core losses also will be low and can be neglected. Now since the
rated currents are flowing in both the Primary and the secondary the input power
will be mostly consumed as copper losses. Since the secondary is short circuited
the secondary voltage is zero and the entire input voltage V1 drops in the total
equivalent impedance Z EQP of the transformer reflected to the primary.

i.e. V1 = IPSC . Z EQP

The readings in the short circuit test are as follows:

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  Ammeter reading : Primary current IPSC( with secondary short
circuited )
 Volt meter reading : Applied Primary voltage V1
 Wattmeter reading : Input power totally consumed as Copper losses
PCUL

With this notation the power factor Cos ƟSC in this test is given by:

PCUL = V1. IPSC . Cos ƟSC

From the above readings and the governing equations we can calculate the
Equivalent Resistance, Equivalent Impedance and Equivalent Reactance
parameters of the transformer referred to the primary as below.
Equivalent Resistance: R EQP = PCUL / I2PSC

Equivalent Impedance: Z EQP = V1 / IPSC

Equivalent Reactance : X EQP = √ Z 2EQP -- R2EQP

Sumpner's Test :
Sumpner's test or back to back test on transformer is another method for
determining transformer efficiency, voltage regulation and heating under loaded
conditions. Short circuit and open circuit tests on transformer can give us
parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer, but they cannot help us in finding
the heating information. Unlike O.C. and S.C. tests, actual loading is simulated in
Sumpner's test. Thus the Sumpner's test gives more accurate results of regulation
and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.

Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two
identical transformers are available. Both transformers are connected to supply
such that one transformer is loaded on another. Primaries of the two identical
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transformers are connected in parallel across a supply. Secondaries are connected
in series opposition such that their e.m.f's are opposite to each other. Another
low voltage supply is connected in series with secondaries to get the readings, as
shown in the circuit diagram shown below.

Figure : Sumpner’s Test setup

In the above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Their secondaries are
connected in voltage opposition, i.e. both the emf's EEF and EGH cancel each other,
as transformers are identical. In this case, as per superposition theorem, no
current flows through secondary. And thus the no load test is simulated. The
current drawn from V1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal to no load current of each
transformer. Thus , input power measured by wattmeter W1 is equal to iron losses
of both the transformers.

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i.e. Iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.

Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage
transformer. The voltage V2 is adjusted such that, the rated current I2 flows
through the secondary. In this case, both primaries and secondaries carry rated
current. Thus short circuit test is simulated and wattmeter W2 shows total full
load copper losses of both transformers. i.e. Copper loss per transformer PCu =
W2/2.

From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given
as:

And Output = kVA rating x Cos θ (power factor)

Predetermination of efficiency and regulation:

Calculation of efficiency:

We have obtained Iron losses Pi as the input power W0 from the OC test and then
Full load ( or at any load ) copper losses Pcu as the input power Psc from the SC
test.

Using this data we can predetermine efficiency and regulation at any load and
power factor as shown below.

% η at full (rated load) = *,Rated KVA x cos Ɵ- / , Rated KVA x cos Ɵ + Pi + Psc } ]
x 100

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Similarly at any load which is a fraction of full load we can predetermine the
efficiency

% η at any load = *,n x Rated KVA x cos Ɵ- / , n x Rated KVA x cos Ɵ + Pi + n2Psc
} ] x 100

Calculation of Regulation:

We know that % Regulation @FL is defined as: % Regulation@FL =[ (Input –

output at FL )/Input] x100

= [{Drop across the equivalent resistance REQ and equivalent

XEQ @FL}/Input] x 100

From the SC test we can obtain the equivalent circuit parameters. We shall use
the following designation and get the expression for regulation by using the
circuit parameters referred to both primary and secondary.

VP = rated primary voltage IP = rated primary current

(FL)

VS = rated secondary voltage I S = rated secondary current

(FL)

REQP = Equivalent resistance referred to primary REQS = Equivalent resistance

referred to secondary XEQP = Equivalent reactance referred to primary XEQS =
Equivalent reactance referred to secondary

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Then

% Regulation (referred to primary)@FL = [{IP (REQP x Cos Ɵ + XEQP x Sin Ɵ) /VP }]

x 100

% Regulation (referred to secondary)@FL = [{IS (REQS x Cos Ɵ + XEQS x Sin Ɵ)

/(VP/a)}] x 100

Where ‘a’ is the transformer turns ratio

Regulation at any other load can be calculated using the same relation as above
except that the currents Ip and Is are to be multiplied by the corresponding load
fractions ‘n’ and the relations will become

% Regulation (referred to primary)@any fractional FL = [{nIP (REQP x Cos Ɵ +

XEQP x Sin Ɵ) /VP }] x 100

% Regulation (referred to secondary)@any fractional FL = [{nIS (REQSx Cos Ɵ + XEQS

x Sin Ɵ) /(VP/a)}] x 100

Transformer equivalent circuits (Both Complete and simplified) referred to both

Primary and secondary are appended below again for a quick reference :

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Fig: Simplified equivalent circuits (a) Referred to the primary side (b) Referred to
the secondary side
(c) With no excitation branch, referred to the primary side (d) With no excitation
branch, referred to the secondary side
Parallel operation of transformers:

Need for Parallel operation of transformers:

When the load outgrows the capacity of an existing transformer, it may be

economical to install another one in parallel with it rather than replacing it with a
single larger unit. Also, sometimes in a new installation, two units in parallel,
though more expensive, may be preferred over a single unit for reasons of
reliability—half the load can be supplied with one unit out. Further, the cost of
maintaining a spare is less with two units in parallel. However, when spare units
are maintained at a central location to serve transformer installations in a certain
region, single-unit installations would be preferred. It is, therefore, seen that
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parallel operation of the transformer is quite important and desirable under
certain circumstances.

Conditions for successful parallel operation of transformers:

The satisfactory and successful operation of transformers connected in parallel on

both sides requires that they fulfill the following conditions:

(i) The transformers must be connected properly as far as their polarities are
concerned so that the net voltage around the local loop is zero. A wrong polarity
connection results in a dead short circuit.
(ii) Three-phase transformers must have zero relative phase displacement on the
secondary sides and must be connected in a proper phase sequence. Only the
transformers of the same phase group can be paralleled. For example, Y/Y and
Y/D transformers cannot be paralleled as their secondary voltages will have a
phase difference of 30°. Transformers with +30° and –30° phase shift can,
however, be paralleled by reversing the phase-sequence of one of them.
(iii) The transformers must have the same voltage-ratio to avoid no-load
circulating current when transformers are in parallel on both primary and
secondary sides. Since the leakage impedance is low, even a small voltage
difference can give rise to considerable no-load circulating current and extra I2R
loss.
(iv) There should exist only a limited disparity in the per-unit impedances (on their
own bases) of the transformers. The currents carried by two transformers (also
their kVA loadings) are proportional to their ratings if their ohmic impedances (or
their pu impedances on a common base) are inversely proportional to their
ratings or their per unit impedances on their own ratings are equal. The ratio of
equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance should be the same for all
the transformers. A difference in this ratio results in a divergence of the phase
angle of the two currents, so that one transformer will be operating with a higher,
and the other with a lower power factor than that of the total output; as a result,
the given active load is not proportionally shared by them.

Parallel Transformers on No-load:

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The parallel operation of transformers can be easily conceived on a per phase
basis. Figure below shows
two transformers paralleled on both sides with proper polarities but on no-load.

Fig: Two transformers connected in parallel

The primary voltages V1 and V2 are obviously equal. If the voltage-ratio of the two
transformers are not identical, the secondary induced emf’s, E1 and E2 though in
phase will not be equal in magnitude and the difference (E1 – E2)will appear across
the switch S. When secondaries are paralleled by closing the switch, a circulating
current appears even though the secondaries are not supplying any load. The
circulating current will depend upon the total leakage impedance of the two
transformers and the difference in their voltage ratios. Only a small difference in
the voltage-ratios can be tolerated.

Parallel Operation of Two Ideal Transformers:

Now we will consider ideal case of two transformers having the same voltage
ratio and their voltage triangles are equal in size and shape.i.e. apart from their
impedances being same, their X/R ratios are also same. The circuit shown in the
figure below consists of two transformers in parallel.
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 Fig: Two ideal transformers connected in parallel

The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in the figure below.

As seen from this figure the impedance voltage triangles of both the
transformers are same. I1 and I2 are the currents flowing through transformers 1
and 2 which are in parallel. These currents are in phase with the load current and
are inversely proportional to the respective impedances.

Fig: Phasor diagram of two ideal transformers connected in parallel

Current sharing : Let us now find out the distribution of the given load current for
this condition between the two transformers. Let I be the total current and I1 and
I2 be the currents shared by the two transformers.

Then applying KCL to the transformer secondaries ,

I = I1 + I2
Secondary voltage,
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 V2 = E - I1 ZA = E – I2Z2
Also I1 Z1 = I2 Z2
I1 / I2 = Z2 / Z1
Applying current divider formulae we get
I1 = I Z2 / (Z1 + Z2 )
and I2 = I Z1 /(Z1 + Z2)

Parallel Operation of Transformers with Equal Voltage Ratios:

Let us now consider the case of two transformers connected in parallel having
equal voltage ratios. The two transformers are having no load secondary voltage
same. i.e. E1 = E2 = E. These voltages are in phase with each other. This is possible
if the magnetizing currents of the two transformers are not much different. With
this case the primaries and secondaries of the two transformers can be connected
in parallel and no current will circulate under no load condition. This is
represented in the figure below.

Fig: Two transformers with equal voltage ratios connected in parallel

If we neglect magnetizing components, the two transformers are represented as

shown in the figure below .

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 Fig: Simplified equivalent circuit neglecting the magnetizing componenets

The phasor diagram under this case is shown in the figure below .

The two impedances Z1 and Z2 are in parallel. The values of Z1 and Z2 are with
respect to secondary.The impedances Z1 and Z2 are equal in magnitude but not in
phase. i.e. the ratios X1/R1 and X2/R2 are not equal.

Fig: Phasor diagram of the two transformers with equal voltage ratios connected in
parallel

Current distribution:

Z1 and Z2 are in parallel therefore the equivalent impedance is given by,

1/Zeq = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2 Zeq = Z1 Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 )
As seen from the phasor diagram
I1 Z1 = I2 Z2 = I Zeq
I1 = I Zeq/ Z1 = I Z2 /( Z1 + Z2 )
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 I2 = I Zeq/ = I Z1/( Z1 + Z2
Multiplying both terms of above equation by voltage V2,
V2 I1 = V2 I Z2 /( Z1 + Z2 )
V2 I2 = V2 I Z1/( Z1 + Z2)

But V2 I x 10-3 is Q i.e. the combined load in KVA

From this , the KVA carried by each transformer is calculated as,

The above expressions are useful in determining the values of Q1 and Q2 in

magnitude and in phase.

The two transformers work at different power factor. One operates at high p.f.
while the other at low p.f. If the impedances Z1 and Z2 are equal both in
magnitude and quality i.e. ( X1/ R1 = X2/R2 ), then both transformers operate at the
same p.f. which is the p.f. of the load.

Parallel Operation of Transformers with Unequal Voltage Ratios:

Now we will consider the case of two transformers working in parallel and having
unequal voltage ratio. This is shown in the figure below. The voltage ratios of the
two transformers are not equal. The parallel operation under this case is still
possible. But as seen previously there would be a circulating current under no
load condition.

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 Fig: Two transformers with unequal voltage ratios connected in parallel

The phasor diagram of this transformer is shown below:

Fig: Phasor diagram of two transformers with unequal voltage ratios connected in parallel

As can be seen the two transformers apart from having unequal output voltages
E1 and E2 , their impedances Z1 and Z2 and their X/R ratios are also unequal.
Φ1 and Φ2 are the power factor angles of these two transformers and Φ is the
combined p.f. angle.

Current distribution (Load sharing):

Let us consider that the voltage ratio of transformer-1 is slightly more than that of
transformer-2. So the induced e.m.f E1 is greater than E2. Thus the resultant

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terminal voltage will be (E1 - E2 ) which will cause a circulating current Ic under no
load condition.
Ic = (E1 - E2)/(Z1 + Z2 )
From the circuit diagram we have,
E1 = V2 + I1 Z1
E2 = V2 + I2 Z2
Also, IL = I1 + I2
V2 = IL ZL = ( II + I2 ) ZL
E1 =(I1 + I2) ZL + II Z1 ......... (1)
E2 =(I1 + I2 ) ZL + I2 Z2 ......... (2)
Subtracting equation (b) from (a) we have,
E1 - E2 = I1 Z1 - I2 Z2 from which we get
I1 = [(E1 - E2) + I2 Z2] /Z1 ………..(3)
and I2 = [ I1 Z1- (E1 - E2)]/Z2 ..……..(4)

Substituting the value of I1 from (3) in equation (2) we get :

From which we get: I2 = [E2 Z1 - (E1 - E2)ZL) / (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2)+ …….. (5)

Similarly by Substituting the value of I2 from equation (4) in equation (1) we get :

E1 = I1Z1 + [ I1 + { I1Z1 – (E1- E2)}/Z2]ZL

From which we get: I1 = [E1 Z2 + (E1 - E2)ZL)/ (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2)+ ……… (6)

If impedances Z1 and Z2 are small in comparision with load impedance ZL then the
product Z1 Z2 in the above equations (6) and (5) for currents I1 and I2 may be
neglected so that finally we get the current distribution between the two
transformers as,

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Where the second term (E1 - E2) / (Z1 + Z2) is the circulating current Ic which adds
to the load shared by transformer-1 whose output voltage E1 is higher and
subtracts from the load shared by transformer-2 whose output E1 is lower. Hence
transformer-1 gets overloaded and the transformers will not share the load
according to their ratings.

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